Ttongphungphai Tukvirh (2)

Ttongphungphai Tukvirh (2)

1.1 Ttongphungphai Kop Thum

Ttongphungphai ahhin thuhla thlurh dan kawkalh aw vek ih lang mi kop thum an um. (Kop ti lo in ‘khuah’ asilole ‘tuak’ tivek tla hmang sehla a ttha men ding. Mino pawl hrangah a hnok pang ding tiah ‘kop’ ka run hmang hrih.)

Pakhatnak cu synchronic versus diachronic tiah an ko. Synchronic linguistics in a sim duh mi cu hril suah mi can pakhat sungih ttong umtudan thuhla zirhliahnak tican a si. Diachronic linguistics cu can feh vivo ih ttong umtudan herawknak zirhliahnak a si. Tthimnak ah synchronic linguistics cun 1990 ihsin 2015 karlak ih Chin ttong umtudan zirhliahnak tivek a tuah asile, diachronic linguistics thluntu pawl cun sanphung (history) lamtluan ih Chin ttong tthansoh vivo dan le a ruangkham thlengawknak (structural changes) tivek a thlurh ding.

Pahnihnak cu theoretical versus applied tiah an ko. Theoretical linguistics ih hmuitin mi cu ttong ruangkham hrangih theory tlangpi dinsuah (the construction of a general theory of the structure of language) asilole ttong pawl pholangnak hrangih theoretical hruangkham tlangpi pakhat (a general theoretical framework for the description of languages) dinsuah ding lam a si. Applied linguistics ih hmuitin mi cu dengfeltei’ ttong zirhliahnak ihsi hmuhsuah mi pawl le ningkhawng pawl kha a tak ih ttuannak ah hmansuah ding, a hleice in ttong zirternak kalhmang (methods of language teaching) pawl tlamtlinter vivo nak ding hrangah, a si.

A pathumnak cu microlinguistics versus macrolinguistics tiah an ko. Himi pahnih hi cu tawi deuh ih vun simfiang vukvi ding ah an buaithlak deuh. Microlinguistics hi a hmunram a bi deuh ih, macrolinguistics hin linguistics khawvel a luhcilh kau deuh.

Microlinguistic thlirdan ahcun ttong pawl hi anmah rori ih sinak in zoihnit ding a si. Ttong pawl in zatlanglam ih hmual an neihnak (social function), nauhak pawl in ziangtin ttong an thiam, ttongkam (speech) relsuah le donson dan tthumawknak a si mi thluaklam hnattuannak kalhmang pawl (psychological mechanisms), ttong ih calailam le thliamthluaklam asilole pehtlaihawknak lam hnattuan (the literary and aesthetic or communicative function of language), tivek pawl kha ttong zoihnitnak sungah telh lo in amah a ttong lawng rori kha a thlurh.

Asinan macrolinguistics cun a tlun ih tarlang mi hmunhma pawl hmuahhmuah a funkhawm thluh. Macrolinguistics in a huap mi hmunhma pawl sungih hmunhma tam zet cu hmin phunphun pek an si zo. Tthimnak ah psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, dialectology, mathematical and computational linguistics, le stylistcis tivek pawl hi macrolinguistics ih huap mi hmunhma pawl an si.

Ttongphungphai sungih a tel mi thil pawl hi tthendan tampi a um ruangah lehhnu lam ah a remcan dan ih zir in tthendan dangdang khal run tarlang vivo tum a si.

Ttongphungphai Tukvirh (1)

Ttongphungphai Tukvirh (1)

Ttongphungphai (linguistics) cu ziang a si?

Ttongphungphai timi cu dengfeltei’ ttong zirhliahnak (the scientific study of language) a si. Zabi 19 laili hrawng ihsi khan Philology timi thawn an luhcilh mi a danglamnak langter ding in an rak hmang thok.

Philology timi ttongfang hi 1716 kum ihsi hman thok mi ttongfang a si ih cumi san lai ahcun tuini ih sanphunglam ttongphungphai (historical linguistics) kan timi lam hoi deuh bik in a feh. Cumi san lai ahcun ttong thuhla an zoihnit tik khal ah sanphung lamtluan ih a herawk vivo dan lam hi an rak ngaihven tam. Asinan Ferdinand de Saussure in canbi pakhat sungih ttong umtudan zirhliahnak (synchronic analysis - himi thuhla a hnuailam ah fiang deuh in a ra ding) a thupitzia a run ttansuahpi hnu cun ttong zirhliahnak cu philology timi ttongfang lawng in a daih nawn lo. Curuangah “linguistics” timi hi hman vivo a run hlawh.

“Linguist” timi ttongfang hi “ttong thuhla zirtu tlawngta” timi tican nei in 1641 kum lam ahkhan hman a rak si ve zo. Asinan “linguistics” timi ttongfang cu 1847 kum lawng ah hman thok a si. Tu ahcun dengfeltei’ ttong zirhliahnak timi sullam neitu zircawnnak ttongfang (academic term) lar zet ah a rung cang zo. Tuini ahcun “linguist” timi cu zircawnnak ttongfang ih hman a si tikah ttong zirhliahtu/zoihnittu, asilole a hranpa ih ttong dangdang zirhliahtu a kawhhmuh. Zirnak khawvel lenglam ahcun ttong tam zet nal zuahzo ih a hmang thiamtu pawl kawhhmuhnak ah hman a si.

Philology le Ttongphungphai danglamnak cu zirhliahnak ih an ken tel mi lungput (attitude), thlurhcenak (emphasis), le tumtah mi (purpose) pawl ah an si deuh bik. Philologist cun sanphung sungih ttong a tthansoh vivo dan (the historical development of language) a ngaihven deuh bik. Cumi a zirhliahnak ah ngan mi cahlawm pawl (written texts) le a pehpar mi calai le nunphung kha sirhsan ah a hmang. Tuini ahcun philology timi hi a tlangpithu in “ttong pakhat ih kalhmang, sanphung le calailam cindan zirhliahnak” (the study of a language’s grammar, history, and literary tradition) ti’n theih a hlawh tlangpi.

Khatlam ah, linguist khal hi ngan mi cahlawm pawl le can feh vivo ih ttong a tthansoh dan pawl a ngaihven ve tla a si thei ko. Asinan linguist cun relsuah ttong (spoken language) le bikhiah mi can pakhat  sung (given point in time) ih an umtudan pawl zoihnitnak (analyzing) kha thupi ah a ret sawn ttheu.

Mi tthenkhat cun ttongphungphai le calai hi bangrep ah an ruat. Himi cu theihfimnak tlaksam ruangah a si. Ttongphungphai cu ttong thawn a pehpar aw mi pawl zirhliahnak a si kan ti zo. Calai cu minung ih suangtuahnak, ruahnak, tontuarnak (feeling) tivek pawl phosuahnak a si. Minung thinlung sungmuril ih a um mi pawl phuansuahnak a si. Calai timi cu biazai, thuanthucawn (drama/play), nunthuleng, nunthuanthu (biography), calailam essay (litearay essay) le calai thawn a pehpar mi nganca pawl khi an si.

Mi tthenkhat lala cun calai um ding in cangan a um a ttul ruangah cangan dan lam ngaihventu le tawlreltu ttongphungphai mithiam hi an thupibik tiah an ruat. An thupi lo tinak cu a si lo. Asinan calai timi cu cangan a um hlan ihsin a rak um zo. Minung sungril nun phuansuahnak a si mi calai cu cangan a rak um hlan ihsin zatlang hla (folk song) le samh mi biazai tivek pawl ihsin leitlun pumpuluk ah rak hman a si rero zo. Cangan um hlan ih rak um mi calai kha kaa ih simsinawk vivo mi a si ruangah simsin calai (oral literature) tiah an ko. Curuangah calai timi cu minung in a nunmuril a phorhsuahnak a si ih, cangan a um kherkher a ttul hran lo. Tuisan ah cangan a um ruangah phosuah a olsam ih, hminsin khal a olsam ti thu sawn a si. Calai umternak ding ih a thupibik cu thu a ruattu, a dongsongtu, a ngaihventu minung sawn kha a si.

Mi tthenkhat in ttongphungphai le ttongkalhmang (grammar) hi bangrep ah an ruat lala. Asinan an huapcin ramri a bang aw lo. Ttongkalhmang cu ttongphungphai sungih a tel mi hngettek pakhat a si ih, minung in ttong kan hman dan kalhmang pawl zirhliahnak a si. Ttongphungphai timi cu ttong thawn a pehpar mi thuhla hmuahhmuah zirhliahnak a si ruangah a kalhmang lawng zirhliahnak a si mi ttongkalhmang thawn khaikhin theih a si lo. (Grammar timi hi Greek ttong ihsin a ra ih “cangan thiamzung” (the art of writing) tican a si. Ziangahtile hlanlai ih Greek pawl cun ttong an zirhliah tikah nganmi ca an rak sirhsan. Asinan san thar mithiam pawl cun grammar in a luhcilh mi taktak cu nganca kalhmang si lo in ttong ih kalhmang sawn a si tiah an pom. Curuangah hitawk khal ah ttongkalhmang ti ih ka run hmannak san a si.)

Ramtamhuap Nui' Ttong Ni

Ramtamhuap Nui' Ttong Ni

(International Mother Language Day)

Ramtamhuap Nui' Ttong Ni hi kum tinte'n February 21 ah leitlun pumpi ih hman ttheu mi a si. Leitlun huap ih ttongphungphailam le nunphunglam danglamawknak le ttong ci tintian cohlan tonawknak somsoh ding a tumtah (to promote awareness of linguistic and cultural diversity and multilingualism). Ramtamhuap Ttangrual Fimthiamnaklam, Dengfelphunglam le Nunphunglam Pawlpi (UNESCO) in 1999 kum November 17 ah a rak phuang. Himi ni hleice hi Ramtamhuap Ttangrual Huapkim Tonkhawmpi (United Nations General Assembly) khal in a pompi mi a si. Kum tinte'n himi ni hrangah hmuitin hleice mi tuah a si ttheu ih, a kum zawng khal in hmuitin hleice mi tuah can a um. Tthimnak ah 2008 kum kha Ttongpawl hrangih Ramtamhuap Kum (International Year of Languages) si ding in Ramtamhuap Ttangrual cun a rak phuang. 

Ramtamhuap Nui' Ttong Ni hi 2000 kum February thla ihsin hman ringring mi a si. Himi ni hi Dhaka Phunsangtlawng, Jagannath Phunsangtlawng, Dhaka Siivailam College tivekpawl ih tlawng a kaitu tlawngtapawl in 1952 kum ah an tappi ttong Bangla kha lehhnuih Pakistan ram a rung si leh mi hrangih phunpi ttong (national language) pahnih lakih tel ding in an dil ruangah palik in Dhaka, tuisan ih Bangladesh ram khawlipi, ih an rak kapthat ni a si. Mai' suahsemnak Nui' ttong ttanpi ruangih thah le hriam an tuar ni a si bik.

Ramtamhuap Nui' Ttong Ni hi UNESCO ih Huapkip Lairelnak (General Conference) in 1999 November thla ih a nemhnget mi a si (30C/62). 2009 kum May 16 ah Ramtamhuap Ttangrual Huapkip Tonkhawmpi cun a hmuitin mi thutluknak A/RES/61/266 ah Sungtel Rampawl cu "leitlun minungpawl ih hman mi ttong hmuahhmuah humhualnak le kilkhawinak somdawl ding in" (to promote the preservation and protection of all languages used by peoples of the world) a forhfial. Cumi tumtahnak thotho in Huapkim Tonkhawmpi cun ttong ci dangdang cohlanawknak le nunphung dangdang cohlanawknak thawng in danglam cing ih lungrualnak (unity in diversity) le ramtamhuap theihthiamawknak (international understanding) somsoh vivo a si theinak ding hmuitin in 2008 kum cu Ttongpawl hrangih Ramtamhuap Kum ah a phuang. Zatlangnun dikdawhnak (social justice) timi hi miphun dangdang rualrem le hlawk tlang zet ih kan umkhawm theinak ding ah a hnuk-hripi pakhat a si. Ramhrin miphun mi malsawn pawl le mi vai-tthawn pawl (migrants) ih canvo (rights) somsohnak asilole gender tluktlanawknak tivek kan somsoh tikah zatlangnun dikdawhnak kan khaisang tinak a si. Gender, kum, cithlah, hrin, sakhua, nunphung asilole kuttualleisam sinak (disability) ruangih minungpawl in an ton mi dawnkhamtu thil pawl (barriers) kan hlonhloh tikah zatlangnun dikdawhnak kan sersuak tinak a si.

Ttong timi hi hmuh-tham theih mi le hmuh-tham theih lo mi rothil (heritage) kilkhawinak le tthansohternak hrangih bungrua huham neibik (most powerful instruments) an si. Nui' ttong darhzai ding ih ttuannak hmuahhmuah hi ttong danglamnak le ttong tintian ih fimthiam zircawnnak somdawlnak hrang lawng ah si lo in, leitlun huap ih ttong le nunphunlam cindan (tratidions) phunphun tthansohternak ah siseh, theihtiamawknak (understanding), zawiawkawknak (tolerance) le biakpawhawknak (dialogue) hmang ih a hngelhnget mi zatlangnun dinsuah theinak ding ah siseh, an ttangkai thluh a si.

Ramtamhuap Ttangrual in Ramtamhuap Nui' Ttong Ni A Hmandan

• 2000, Inaugural celebration of International Mother Language Day
• 2001, Second annual celebration
• 2002, Linguistic Diversity: 3,000 Languages in Danger (slogan: In the galaxy of languages, every word is a star)
• 2003, Fourth annual celebration
• 2004, Children learning (the observance at UNESCO included "a unique exhibition of children’s exercise books from around the world illustrating the process by which children learn and master the use of written literacy skills in the classroom"
• 2005, Braille and Sign languages
• 2006, Languages and Cyberspace
• 2007, Multilingual education
• 2008, International Year of Languages
• 2009, tenth annual celebration
• 2010, International Year for the Rapprochement of Cultures
• 2011, The information and communication technologies
• 2012, Mother tongue instruction and inclusive education
• 2013, Punjabi
• 2014, Mother's Turkish language day

Ramtamhuap Nui' Ttong Ni ah Linguapax Prize pek a si ttheu. Linguapax Laksawng hi ttong kilhimnak le somdawlnak, ttong ci tintian umtlang khawmnak hrangih ttanlaknak tivek hrangah hna a ttuantu pawl hnenah Linguapax Institute in Ramtamhuap Nui’ Ttong Ni ah a pek ttheu mi laksawng a si.

UNESCO in Ramtamhuap Nui' Ttong Ni hrangah kum tinte'n hmuitin mi thuken a tuah ttheu ih a zunghrampi umnak Paris khawpi ah tonkhawm puai a tuah ttheu.

Zingzoi bet duh pawl hrangah:

• History of International Mother Language Day
• Facebook Page of International Mother Language Day
• UNESCO homepage for International Mother Language Day
• UNESCO Education (includes links to information on past IMLD observances)
• The Makers of History: International Mother Language Day

Sirhsan: Wikipedia

Vandumkulh Ttong

Vandumkulh Ttong

(Universal Language)

Hlan lai ahcun ttong hi Pathian pek mi a si ti ih zumnak a rak um ttheu. Norse cithlah cun khuavang pathian Odin cu an cafangpawl sersuaktu a si tiah an rak zum. Phoenician cafang ih hram a bun mi cafang a hmang teltu Greek-pawl khal in an ca khi Phoenicia ihsi ra Cadmus timi thuanthu sung ih minung in a rak tuah mi a si tiah an zum. Arab-pawl ve thung cun thurosiah (tradition) ahcun, an ca le ttong khi, Pathian in Adam hnen ih a rak pek mi a si tiah an zum.

Thil hmin pawl hi ttong kan hmannak lak ih thupi le langsar zet a si. Seemtirnak cabu ah thil hmin pawl cu Pathian in Adam a sakter ti kan hmu (Seem. 2:19). Norse thuanthu khal ahttong sersuahnak ih Pathian tuahttuannak a tel thu a um ih, India thuanthu khal ah khuavang pathian Indra cu ttong sersuaktu ah ruat a si. Plato ih ngan mi Socrates ih ttongkampawl, Cratylus, khal ah Socrates in thil hmin pawl anmah mil ih rak buntu cu khuavang pathianpawl an si thu a relnak a um.

Asinan santhar ttongphungphai (linguistics) thlirdan ahcun ttong timi cu tuahcop hmuhsaknak (arbitrary sign) a si. Curuangah sersuah theih a si. Misapolh san lai ahkhan minung le rannung tla rak be aw pop thei vekin thuanthu ah a um ttheu. Asinan tuisan ahcun minung le rannung cu rel hlah, minung le minung lala karlak hman ah ttong a bangawk lo ruangah kan rel duh mi thei aw thei lo in vei tampi kan buai. 

Hivek buainak hi ziangtin kan rehter pei? Ttong hi sersuah a theih kan ti asile, leitlun minung hmuahhmuah ih hman rual thei ding mi ttong the sersuah a theih ve ko lo ding maw? Hivek thuhla hi kannih in a ruatnak cang kan thiam hlan ah mi tampi in an rak ruat ih, a tak khal in an rak ttuan.

Leitlun pumpi ih minung hmuahhmuah hin pehtlaihawknak dingah ttong pakhat hmang tlang thei sehla a ttha ding timi ruahnak hi a rak um thoknak a rei zet zo. Mithiam tampi khal in an rak zuam, an zuam rero ih, an zuam rero lai ding khal a bang. Tuini tiangah ramtamhuap ttong (international language) si ding ih sersuah mi ttong hi 600 lenglo a um zo.

Ramtamhuap ttong tuahsuahtumnak thawi’ duansuah mi ttongpawl lak ah Polish miphun mitsibawi (oculist) le ttongphungthiam (linguist) L.L.Zamenhof in 1887 ih a rak tuah mi Esperanto hi leitlun ih duancop ttong (artificial language) ahcun a hlawhtlingbik. Anih hin ramtamhuap ttong pahnihnak (second language) si ding ih a timtuah mi a si.

Zamenhof hi Jew cithlah a si ih an innsang ttong cu Russian a si. Poland le Russia ramri kiang ih hrin le phunhnam thleidanawknak thubuai a tamzetnak hmun ah an um. Curuangah Zamenhof hin ramtamhuap ttong duansuahnak hmang in suahsualnakpawl rehternak ih mi tthahnem si dingah a nunak pumhlum a hmang. 

Kum tam zet sung Doktoro Esperanto timi hminlem (pseudonym) hmang ih zirhliahnak a tuah hnu ah Lingvo Internacia (1887; Dr. Esperanto ih Ramtamhuap Ttong) timi cabu a suah. A hminlem ‘Esperanto’ ih tican cu ‘ruahsantu’ tinak a si. Himi a hminlem hi a duansuahmi ttong ih hmin khal ah a rung cang cih.

Esperanto ttong hmang ih suah mi mekazin hmaisabik cu 1889 ah a suak ih, 1893 ah Esperanto somdawlnak pawlpi hmaisabik a ding. A tuahsuaktu Zamenhof khal in Esperanto a larso vivo theinak ding ah Thukam Hlun, Hamlet, Hans Christian Andersen ih Lasi Thuanthupawl, le Moliere, Goethe, le Nikolay Gogol tivek canganthiam hminthang pawl ih thuanthucawnpawl, le cabu dangdang a let hai. 

Esperanto ttong hmangtu hi 100,000 hnak in an tamsawn ding tiah Britannica Encyclopaedia cun a ngan. Asinan World Book Encyclopedia cun Esperanto tuah a rak si kum, 1887, ihsin Esperanto zirtu hi minung million 10 lenglo an si ih, million 2 hrawng in an hmang tiah a ngan. Universal Esperanto-Asocio (1908 ih din mi) cun ram 83 ah sungtel (member) a nei. Esperanto association (pawlpi) 50 le Esperanto a hmangtu ramtamhuap professional pawlpi 22 an um. Kum tinten World Esperanto Congress tuah a si. Camneica (periodicals) 100 lenglo cu Esperanto in suah a si ih, cabu 30,000 lenglo khal Esperanto ih suah a si zo.

Esperanto tthansohternak hrangih duansuahmi ttong dang pakhat cu Ido a si. French mithiam Louis de Beaufront in a tuah mi a si ih 1907 kum, Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language (Ramtamhuap Ttong Siahrelh Cawmsohnak hrang Palaipawl Tonkhawmawknak) ah, siarsuahnak a nei. 

Duansuahmi ttong dang pakhat leh cu 1928 kum ih Danish miphun ttonghramphungthiam (philologist) Otto Jespersen in ramtamhuap ttong siahrelh (auxiliary language) siter ding hmuitin ih a tuah mi Novial a si. 

Duansuahmi ttong dang pakhat cu 1880 kum ah German puithiam Johann Martin Schleyer in a rak tuah mi Volapuk a si ih, ramtamhuap ttong pahnihnak ah a hmuitin. Himi ttong hi a kalhmang a hnok zet nan uartu a rak ngah ve zet dah. A uartupawl in himi ttong in cabu le camneica (periodical) tampi an suah ve.

A dang pakhat leh cu Interlingua a si. Himi hi Italian mithiam Giuseppe Peano in 1903 ih a rak duansuah mi a si ih, Latin ttong tluangtlamter mi a si. Asinan a hnok lai thotho. Curuangah 1940 kumpawl le 1950 kumpawl ah, International Auxiliary Language Association ih somdawlnak thawn ttongphungthiam Alexander Gode in tluangtlam sinsin ding in a tuah ih dengfelphunglam (scientific) khawvel ih hmang ding in a rak aupi. Ramtamhuap dengfelphunglam journal-pawl khal in an ca sungah Interlingua hi an telh phah ttheu. Asinan a rel`ong lam ahcun hman a hlawh lemlo. 

Mi tthenkhat cun vandumkulhhuap ttong ih hman ding ahhin ttong um cia a si mi English, French, asilole Russian tivek hmang sehla tiah an ruat. Himi khal thil cang thei a si ko. Asinan hril ding mi ttong a tamtuk ih ziang bulce kan hril ding timi hi thil buaithlak ngaingai a rak si.

Mi tampi cun duansuahcop ttong hi an do. Ttong um cia vek in nunphung diktak a tarlang thei lo tiah an zum. Mi dang leh cun ttong um cia pakhat leitlunhuap ttong ih hman ding cu an duh lo lala. Miphun pakhat asilole miphun malte tthenkhat lawng ih nunphung in leitlun ih miphun hmuahhmuah hranhram in a hliahkhuh ding ti an phang. 

Hivek elbuaiawknak a um sung ahcun leitlunhuap ttong pakhat ngahsuah ding cu a nai hrih lo a sibik ko.

Sirhsan: Wikipedia.

Tuahmawh Tuartu Ttong

Tuahmawh Tuartu Ttong

(Endangered Language)

Tuahmawh mi ttong asilole tuahmawh a tuartu ttong (endangered language) timi cu a hmangtu minung pawl an thihhloh ruangah asilole a hmangtu minung pawl in ttong dang an hman sawn thlang ruangih hman mal vivo mi ttong khi a si. Ttong pakhat cu mai’ tappi ttong ih hmangtu minung (native speaker) a neih lo ahcun a riaral vivo ih, ttong thi (dead language) ah a cang ttheu.

           

A netkhawt ah, cui’ ttong cun hmangtu a nei nawn lo lawlaw a si ahcun ttong daireh (extinct language) ah a cang. Minung sanphung (history) lamtluan ah ttong tamngaipi an rak daireh (extinct) zo ih, globalization le colony-phungthluk thar (neo-colonialism) ruangah tuisan khal ah ttong tthenkhat cu an daireh rero. Ziangahtile globalization le colony-phungthluk thar ruangah sumsiamlam thazang cak ttong pawl (economically powerful languages) in ttong dang pawl an silhkhuh vivo ruangah a si (1). A tlangpithu cun ttongsuah tam mi (more commonly spoken) ttong pawl in ttongsuah mal mi ttong an silhkhuh vivo ruangah, ttongsuah mal mi ttong cu a hmangtu mipum an mal vivo ttheu.

           

Leitlun ah ttong paziat an um ti hi fiangfai ngaingai cun theih a si lo. Rinruahdan phunphun khal an ttansan thuhla pawl ih zir in an dang aw vivo. A tlangpithu ih pom tlang dan ahcun ttong 6000 ihsin 7000 cu tuisan ahhin hman an si rero lai ih, cumi lak ih zatek 50-90% cu AD 2100 ahcun an daireh (hman an si nawn lo) ding ti a si. SIL International (Summer Institute of Linguistics International) in zirhliahnak thawi’ a hminsin-ngankhum mi leitlun ttong cazin, Ethnologue, ahcun 2005 ahkhan ttong 6912 a um ih, cumi lak ihsin 32.8% (ttong 2,269) cu Asia khawmualpi ah, le 30.3% (ttong 2,092) cu Africa khawmualpi ah an um (2).

           

Ttong daireh (riaral) zik rero an tamnak hmun pawl cu Nisuahlam Siberia, Laili Siberia (Central Siberia), Saklam Australia, Laili America, le Nitlak-saklam Pacific Plateau (Northwest Pacific Plateau) pawl an si. Oklahoma le Thlangta America thlanglam (Southern South America) khal ah awmang tawk an um.

           

Hman tambik mi ttong 20 (top 20 languages) cun hmangtu million 50 tlunlam an nei cio ih, himi tttong 20 hmangtu hi leitlun mipum ih zatek 50% an si. Culai ah ttong tthenkhat cu zatlanghlawm (community) fatakte pawl in an hmang ih, tampi cu a hmangtu 10,000 hnak ih mal tla an si (3).

           

Ram Ttangrual Fimthiamnaklam, Dengfelphunglam le Nunphunglam Pawlpi (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization/UNESCO) cun ttong tuahmawhnak thawn pehpar in simfiangnak level panga a tuah. Pakhatnak cu a him mi (safe) ttong a si. Pahnihnak cu hlovai olsam dinhmun ih ding mi (vulnerable) ttong a si ih, nauhakpawl in innsang lawng ah hmang in a lenglam khawvel ih an hman lo mi ttongpawl khi an si. Pathumnak cu tuahmawh tuar fiangfai (definitely endangered) ttong a si ih, nauhak pawl ih hman nawn lo mi ttong a si. Palinak cu bese zet ih tuahmawhmi ttong (severely endangered) a si ih, thlahsinfa (generation) upabik pawl lawng in an hman mi ttong pawl khi an si.  Panganak cu ttihphan um zet tuahmawhnak tuartu (critically endangered) ttong a si ih, kum upabik pawl lak hman ah mi malte lawng in an hman mi (a tlangpithu cun ttong dang thawi’ hman rawi phah) ttong a si.

           

Himi simfiangnak level ah tthum aw in, ttongphungthiam (linguist) Michael E. Krauss cun nauhak pawl in tuihnu kum 100 khal ah an hmang lai ding ti ih ruat theih mi ttong cu a him mi ttong a si tiah a sim. Tuihnu kum 100 ah nauhak pawl in an hman nawn lo ding mi ttong cu tuahmawhmi ttong ah a ret. Leitlun ih ttong pawl lak ah zatek 60-80% cu tuahmawh mi ttong cazin ahhin an um. Nauhakpawl in tuisan hman ih an hman nawn lo mi ttong cu a hnuk a cat cuahco thlang mi (moribund) ttong cazin ah a ret hai (4).

           

Ttong pakhat cu hmangtu tam zet hmansehla tuahmawh tuar ttong ah a cang thei. Tthimnak ah Indonesia ram ih ttong tthenkhat cu a hmangtu thawng hra tel an um ko nan nauhak pawl in an zir nawn lo, an hman nawn lo ruangah harsatnak hnuai ah an thleng. Indonesia ahhin hrinphun hlawm (ethnic group) 300 lenglo le ttong 250 lenglo a um nan, an phunpihuap ttong (national language), Indonesian, lawng an zir thluh thlang. Khatlam ah ttong tthenkhat cu a hmangtu 500 hrawng lawng an um nan a hmangtu zatlanghlawm in an tappi ttong ah an hmang ih, an nauhak pawl khal in an hmang thluh a si ahcun ttong nung zet ah ruat an si lala.

           

UNESCO in harsatnak hnuai ih a um mi ttong cazin a tuah mi ah ttong 2,500 an um. Cumi pawl cu him lo (unsafe), tuahmawh tuar fiangfel (definitely endangered), tuahmawhnak besia tuartu (severely endangered), ttihphan um zet tuahmawhnak tuar (critically endangered), le daireh (extinct) ti’n level panga ah a tthen bet (5). Kan dunglam thlahsinsan (generation) netabik pathum sung hman ahkhan leitlun ih ttong 200 lenglo cu ttong daireh ah an cang (6). Himi zawn ah ca tthenkhat ahcun UN ih rinruah (estimates) mi ttong daireh (tu naivai thilthu ih daireh mi) hi 2000 lenglo a si ti’n tarlang a si ih, leitlun ttong zatek 50 (a hrek) lenglo cun hmangtu 10,000 hnak ih mal an nei ih, tthen li tthen khat cu a hmangtu 1,000 hnak ih mal mi an si ti’n a um (7).

           

Tu naivai ih ttong riaral pakhat kan rel asile: Nilo-Saharan ttong hlawm lak ih pakhat a si mi, Sudan ram ih Komuz hrinphun ttong Gule (Anej ti tla’n an ko) cu hmangtu a nei nawn lo. A rak hmangtu pawl cu tu ahcun Arabic ttong an hmang thluh zo. Zabi 21 thoklam tiang ah Nilo-Saharan ttong hlawm lak ih ttong tampi cu a hmangtu minung pawl in ttong dang ih an tthawnsan vivo ruangah harsat an tong. Nilo-Saharan ttong pawl lak ih a tthenkhat cu a hmangtu 1,000 hnak ih mal an si; tthimnak ah Kuliak hrinphun ttong Nyang’i (Uganda), Surmic hrinphun ttong Kwegu (Ethiopia), le Nilotic hrinphun ttong Okiek (Kenya) tivekpawl (8).

Ttong An Hlohralnak Sanh pawl

           

Tuahmawhmi ttongpawl hrangih Cambridge Kutkaihbu (Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages) cun ttong in harsat an tonnak san langsar pali a tarlang. Cumi pali cu hlawm hnih ah tthen bet a si (9). Hlawm khatnak, ttong a hmangtu mipum an mal-vivo-nak asilole cui’ minung pawl in harsat an tonnak san pahnih:

1. Khuarellam kangsia-cakkhai pawl (natural disasters), ttam/pam (famine), natnak (disease). Tahtthimnak pakhat cu Andaman Tikulh pawl (Andaman Islands) ih um minung pawl an si. 2004 Indian Tifinriat linghnin le tsunami (tisuarfawnpi) in nasa zet in a siatsuah hai. Cumi ruangah mipum an mal phah. Mipum an mal phah tikah an ttong hmangtu khal an mal phah thluh tinak a si cih ve.

2. Ralbuainak (war), le thah-cimih-awknak (genocide). Himi hrangih tahtthimnak cu Tasmania (Australia ram ih tikulh ramkulh pakhat) ramkulh ih ramhrin hrinhnam pawl an si. Annihpawl hi colonist (ramnortu) in an that cimit hai. America khawmualpi ih ttong tam zet khal a hmangtu pawl thah-cimihnak an tuar ruangah harsatnak hnuai ah an ding. Nicaragua Hrilhoturam (Republic of Nicaragua) ih Miskito ttong, le Guatemala ram ih Mayan ttong pawl cu ram sung ral (civil war) in nasa zet in a siatsuah fawn.

Hlawm hnihnak, mai’ ttong hman theinak dawnkhamtu asiole hmang ngam lo ding ih tuahtu thil pahnih:

1. Ramkhellam delhkilhawknak (political repression). Himi hi phunhnam-ram (nation-state) dinhsuah tumnak hmun pawl ah a thleng tam zet mi a si. Phunpihuap nunphung pakhat (single national culture) dinhsuah tumnak ruangah ttong tenau dang pawl cu mipi tonkhawmnak hmun (public sphere), tlawnginn, media, le hmun dangdang ah hman an hlawh thei nawn lo ttheu ih, hmun tthenkhat ah phei cun ttong tenau hmuahhmuah cu hmang lo ding ih kham an si. A cancan ahcun hrinphun hlawm (ethnic group) tam zet cu hranhram in umnak hmun tthawnter an si. Asilole nauhak pawl cu hmun dang hlapi ih tlawngkai ding in tthawnsak an si. Asilole an nunphung le ttong humhual theinak ding canvo an hloh. Himi hi American ramhrin miphun (Native American) le Australian ttong pawl ah siseh, Europe le Asia khawmualpi ih ttong tenau pawl a si mi France ram ih Breton asilole Alsatian ttong, le Turkey ram ih Kurdish ttong tivek in siseh, an ton rero mi a si. Kannih Chin miphun khal in kan tong rero zo ih, kan tong rero lai.

2. Nunphunglam/ ramkhellam/sumsiamlam engh-tthawnnak/hliahkhuhawknak (cultural/ political/economic marginalization/hegemony). Himi hi ttong le nunphung pakhatkhat kha ramkhellam le sumsiamlam thazang (power) thawn naivai zet ih a sihhngetawk ruangah, mi pakhat kha amai’ ttong (amah le a fanau pawl tel thluh in) hmang nawn lo in hamtthatnak a um sawn mi ttong hmang ding ih hiptu a umnak hmun ah a suak ttheu mi a si. Himi hi ramhrin (indigenous) miphun hlawm khat in zatlanglam hmelhmang (social status) sang deuh ngah thei ding in anmah ra uktu, nehtu, asilole ramhtu (invader) minung pawl ih nunphung le ttong pianhmang (linguistic trait) an lakluhnak ruangah a thleng tam zet mi a si. Hivek ruangah harsatnak a tongtu ttong pawl lak ih tahtthimnak tthenkhat cu Great Britain ram ih Welsh ttong, le Japan ram ih Ainu ttong an si. Himi hi ttong in harsat a tonnak san le vang pawl lak ih a thleng tambik mi a si fawn. Himi khal hi kan Chin miphun khal in bese zet ih kan tuar mi nat a si ve.

           

Himi pali pawl hi a hranpa tete’n an thleng lo tla a si thei. A cancan ahcun ttum khat thilthu ah pakhat hnak ih tam an thleng tlang thei. Cun, nunphunglam hliahkhuhawknak (cultural hegemony) hi donehnak (conquest) le delhkilhnak tivek in si lo’n pehtlaihawknak a tam vivo ruangih a pitling sawn le thazang cak sawn mi nunphung le ttong in a hliahkhuh vivo ruang khal ah a thleng thei fawn.

Engh-tthawnawknak le harsattonternak

(Marginalization and endangerment)

           

Rel zo bang in leitlun ih ttong tampi an siatralnak san tambik cu nunphunglam, ramkhellam, le sumsiamlam engh-tthawnawknak ruangah a si. Mithiampawl in engh-tthawnawknak hi phun tampi in an tthen.

           

Pakhat cu sumsiamlam hliahkhuhnak (economic dominance) a si. Miphun tumsawn asilole hmangtu a nei tam mi ttong umnak lawng ih sumsiamlam tthansohnak um in, ttong tenau a hmangtupawl umnak hmun ih sumsiamlam harsatnak a thlen tikah ttong hlohralnak ding lamzin a tam. Retheihnak ruangah ttong tenau a hmangtu minungpawl cu khawpipawl ah asilole ram dang ah a tthawnter. Curuangah cui’ ttong a hmangtupawl kha hmun dangdang ah an ttekdarh thluh. Himi hi Chin miphun in tulaifang ih kan ton rero mi a si ti cu kan thei ttheh.

           

A dang pakhat cu nunphunglam hliahkhuhnak (cultural dominance) a si. Calai le sangsin fimthiamnak (higher education) cu hmangtu tamsawn ttong lawng ih ngah theih a sinak hmun ah nunphunglam hliahkhuhawknak hi a thleng ttheu. Myanmar ram ih, Kawl a si lo mi, ramhrin miphun hmuahhmuah in himi hi kan tuar rero lai.

           

A dang pakhat leh cu ramkhellam hliahkhuhnak (political dominance) a si. Himi hi fimthiamnak le ramkhellam cangvaihnak ah hmangtu tamsawn ttong lawng hman a si tikah a thleng ttheu. Himi khal hi Myanmar ram ih Kawl a si lo mi ramhrin miphun hmuahhmuah in sepi ruah tuar ih kan tuar rero mi a si.

           

Sanphung (history) sung ih kan zoh tikah kuthnuairam a rak si dah mi ram pawl (colonies) ah, le ttong dangdang a hmangtupawl zomkhawmawknak an neih tikah ttong tthenkhat cu a dang pawl hnak in an cungcuang sawn (superior) ti’n ruat an si ttheu. A tlangpithu cun ttong pakhat in cui’ ram sung ih ttong dang hmuahhmuah a hliahkhuh ttheu. Harsat a tong mi ttong a neitu minungpawl cun an ttong cu retheihnak, siarnganthiamlonak (illiteracy) le zatlang hmai ih mualphonak (social stigma) thlentertu ah an ruat duh zet ih, khatlam ah, zatlanglam le sumsiamlam tthansohnak le sanmannak thlentertu a si mi hliahkhuhtu ttong (dominant language) sawn hman mai duhnak an neih phah ttheu (10).

A Rahsuahpawl (Effects)

           

Ttong in harsatnak a ton mi hin a hmangtu minung le cui’ ttong lala parah rahsuah a nei. Zatlanghlawm pakhat in an ttong an hloh tikah, a tlangpithu in, an ttong thawn a sihcih aw mi nunphunglam cindanpawl (cultural traditons) an hloh phah ttheu. A hleice in hla, puzungthu (myth), le biazai (poetry) tivekpawl hi ttong dang ah ol-aitei’ lehlin le ttthawn theih an si lo ruangah cumi sung ih a um mi nunphunglam cindanpawl an hlo. Cumi in an pianphung (identity) parih an khawruahdan a ttumsukter thei ih, zatlanghlawm pumkhatnak a tlase vivo. A rei vivo cun an ngaithupit mi manmualpawl (values) le cindanpawl cu a thar in thleng a rung si ttheu.

           

Hivek hi a cancan ahcun anomie tiah an sim ttheu. Anomie timi cu zatlanphung (sociology) ttongfang a si ih tahfungpawl (standards) le manmualpawl tlaksiatnak (breakdown) ruangah asilole hmuitinmi (purpose) lole zohtthim tlak thilpawl (ideals) neih lo ruangah senpihlawm (society) asilole mibulpak nun ih hngelhngehlonak (instability) a thleng mi dinhmun hmuhsaknak ih hman mi ttongfang a si. Anomy ti khal in an hmang (11). Himi hi nunphung kilkhawi theitu calai ttong (literary language), le calai kutsuak ttha a nei lo mi mipum mal phunhnam lak ah a thleng tam zet.

           

Ram tthenkhat ahcun hrinphun hlawm (ethnic group) hi an hman mi ttong ih zir in an tthen ruangah ttong a hloh tikah cui’ hrinphun hlawm in an ngah ding mi ramkhellam hamtthatnak hmuahhmuah khal a hloh cih thei tinak a si.

           

Cun, ttong in harsat a ton tikah cui’ ttong ih a um mi ttongkalhmanglam (grammatical) hmelhmang khal an danglam vivo. A hleice in a hliahkhuhtu ttong ih hmel a keng vivo ttheu (12).

Ttong in Tuahmawh A Tuar Hi A Poi Maw?

           

A tlangpithu cun ttong in tuahmawh a tuar hi ttongphungthiam pawl le a hmangtu mipi in poi an ti cio. Asinan ttongphungthiam tthenkhat, tthimnak ah mual liam zo awsuahphung mithiam (phonetician) Peter Ladefoged cun ttong thihnak (language death) hi minung nunphung tthansohnak lamtluan ih a thleng ding mi thil pangai pakhat a si, ttong cu a hmangtu zatlanghlawm in bulpak puhmawh mi san le vang pakhatkhat sirhsan ih an hman nawn lo ruangah a thi a si men, tiah a sim. Ladefoged cun ttongphungthiam pawl ih ttuanvo cu ttong kha dengfel zet ih (scientifically) hminsin-ngankhum ding kha a si ih, ttong a hloh le hloh lo thu ih hrolh aw ve ding an si lo tiah a sim (13).

           

Asinan leitlun ah nunphung le ttong famkim cia a um lo ruangah mitin in mai’ nunphung le ttong cu tthansohter in, mai’ nunphung le ttong cio thawi’ san man leitlun sersuah cu an duh cio. Curuangah, hrilsiannak zalen um sehla cun, mai’ ttong a hloh ding duhtu cu an mal zet ding, asilole, an um lo ding. Ttong a hloh lo ding ruahsan in ttong kilhimnak pawlkom tam zet a ding ih, cozah tampi cun cozah ttuanvo pakhat ah ruat in an ttuan rero fawn.

Ttong Kilhimnak

           

Ttongphungthiam pawl, tuahmawhmi ttong hmangtu zatlanghlawm sungih minung pawl, cozah pawl, cozah-si-lo pawlpi pawl (non-governmental organizations), le UNESCO le European Ttangrual (European Union) tivek ramtamhuap (international) pawlpi pawl cun tuahmawhmi ttong pawl humhim ding le hngelhngetter ding in an ttuan rero. Ttong pakhat cu tuahmawh a si ti ih ruah a si tikah hngelhngehter ding asilole runsuahnak ding in karbak pathum a um. A hmaisabik cu ttong hminsin ngankhumnak (language documentation) a si ih, a pahnihnak cu ttong nuntersalnak (language revitalization) si in, a pathumnak cu ttong kilkhawinak (language maintenance) a si.

           

Ttong hminsin ngankhumnak cu ca, awkhumnak (audio) le zohtheih (visual) kalhmang thawn ttongkalhmang (grammar), ttongfangpawl (vocabulary), le simsin calai (thuanthu, hla, sakhawlam cahlawm pawl) tivek hminsin ngankhumnak tuah a si. Cui ttong hrangah phosuah ttongkalhmang (descriptive grammar) tuah, cui’ ttong ih um mi ca pawl le dictionary pawl tuah le khonkhawm a ttul ih, cuvek pawl himtei’ kilkhawinak ding hmun khal a um a ttul. Cumi lawngah lehhnu thlahsinsan minung pawl in an run zingzoi thei ding.

           

Ttong nuntersalnak timi cu tuahmawhmi ttong kha a hmangtu tam sinsin ding in ramkhellam kalhmang in siseh, zatlanghlawm kaihhruaiawknak in siseh, fimzirnak bungrua hmang in siseh, tawlrelnak a si. Leitlun ah ttong nuntersalnak hlawhtling langsarbik cu Hebru ttong nuntersalnak an tuah mi a si. Hebru ttong hi Israel ram in zalennak ngah a tum tir ahkhan suahkeh ttong zaran ih hmangtu an um nawn lo zo. Sakhuanaklam lawng ih hman mi ttong a si. Asinan phunhnamveinak (nationalism) thawi’ sihkop ih an tharthawh ciamco ruangah a nung thar sal ih, zungpom ttong (official language) ah a hung cang. Tuini ah tuahmawhmi ttong tam zet ih ttongfang pawl le cabu pawl cu internet cahmai parah ngah theih an si thlang (14).

           

Ttong kilkhawinak timi cu cui’ ttong a hmangtu mipum ttumsukter theitu ding a lenglam minung pawl lak ihsi humhim aw thei ding in cui’ ttong a hmangtu pawl bomnak pek kha a si (15).

References

1. Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia (2011). “Introduction”. In Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia. Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages. Cambridge University Press.

2. “Statistical Summaries”. Ethnologue Web Version. SIL International. 2009. Retrieved 26 April 2009.

3. Krauss, Michael E. (2007). “Keynote - Mass Language Extinction and Documentation: The Race Against Time”. In Miyaoka, Osahito; Sakiyama, Osamu; Krauss, Michael E. The Vanishing Languages of the Pacific Rim (illustrated ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–24.

4. Ibid.

5.  “UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger”. UNESCO.org. 2009. Retrieved 27 April 2009.

6. “Languages on Papua Vanish Without a Whisper”. Dawn.com. July 21, 2011.

7. “Language Revitalization”. Wikipedia, free encyclopedia.

8.  “Nilo-Saharan languages.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica 2009 Student and Home Edition.  Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.

9. Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia (2011). “Introduction”. In Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia. Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages. Cambridge University Press.

10. Ibid.

11. “anomie.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica 2009 Student and Home Edition.  Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.

12. UNESCO Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages (2003). “Language Vitality and Endangerment” (pdf). Retrieved 27 April 2009.

13. Ladefoged, Peter 1992. Another view of endangered languages. Language 68(4): 809–11.

14. “Reviews of Language Courses”. Lang1234. Retrieved 11 Sept 2012.

15. Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia (2011). “Introduction”. In Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia. Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages. Cambridge University Press.