Calai (Literature)

Calai

 (Literature)

 

Literature tii ttongfang hi Latin ttong ih a tam relnak ‘litterae’ (ca/cafang) in a ra. Literature timi ttongfang in a ttongfang taktak ih a khihhmuh mi (literally means) cu “cafangpawl ihsi tuah mi thilpawl” tican a si. Calai hi a tlangpithu in ruang-am pipa (major form) pahnih le kalhmang pipa (major technique) pahnih nei ih tthen a si ttheu. Ruang-am pipa pahnih cu sersuah mi ruang-am (fiction) le sersuah si lo (non-fiction) an si ih, kalhmang pipa pahnih cu biazai (poetry) le thutluang (prose) an si.

Calai ahhin thuthang thawn a pehpar mi asilole sersuah si lo thula (journalistic or non-fiction) tivek thuhlangh theihterawknak ih a tthum aw mi cahlawmpawl (texts based on factual information) an tel tla a si thei rual in, thuhla talhton elawknak lam kutsuakpawl, nunthuanthu, le talhtonsalnak essay-pawl (reflective essays) khal an tel thei ih, nunthuleng, biazai asilole thuanthucawn tivek suangtuahnak parah hram a bun mi cahlawmpawl khal an tel thei.

Biazai hmang ih ngan mi calai cun ttong ih thlimthluaitheinak hmual le awkhiahlam tlamtlinnakpawl (the aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language) a si mi awn (sound), hmuhsaknak (symbolism), le suum (metre) tivek kha a ngaihsak hleice. Ttong kha a tican menmen lawng hnakih hmual nei sawn ding in, asilole a tican menmen vek si lo ding in a tuah. Thutluang hmang ih ngan mi calai cun ttongkalhmang ruangkham zaran le relsuahttong ih umtudan vekvek (ordinary grammatical structure and the natural flow of speech) kha a hmang.

Calai hi sanphunglam caanbi (historical period) zawng in siseh, a calai phunhmin (genre) zawng in siseh, ramkhellam hliahkhuhnak (political influence) zawng khal in siseh, tthen theih a si ve. Kum zabi a rung tam vivo rual in calai phunhmin in an huap mi khal a kau vivo. Calai phunhmin timi cu hmuitin mi thutlangpi laili (central theme) nei ih duansuah mi thiamzunglam kutsuak khi a si. Calai phunhmin tthenkhat cu romance, mystery, crime, fantasy, erotica, le adventure le a dang tthenkhat an si.

English calai ih sanphunglam caanbi thupi pawl lakah English Hlun (Old English), English Laita (Middle English), Khawruah Tthangharhnak (Renaissance), zabi 16 sanbi (era) ih Siangpahrangnu Elizabeth San (the Elizabethan- himi ahhin Shakespearan sanbi a tel), Zabi 17 Siangpahrang Lalsalnak canbi (17th Century Restoration period), zabi 18 ih Khawruahnak Tleu-ngahnak San (Age of Enlightenment), zabi 19 ih Romantic phungthluk (Romanticism) san, zabi 19 nelam ih Victoria Siangpahrangnu San (Victiorian), zabi 20 ih Modern phungthluk le Post-modern phungthluk san tivekpawl an tel. Calai zirnak a hliahkhuhtu fimthiamnaklam cangvaihnak thupi pawl (important intellectual movements) ah numi phungthluk (feminism), colony-luan phungthluk (post-colonialism), thluak-zirhliahnak (psychoanalysis), ruangkham-luan phungthluk (post-structuralism), post-moden phungthluk, romantic phungthluk, le Marx phungthluk (Marxism) pawl an tel.

Sanphung (History)
Siangpahrang Gilgamesh ih Epic Bezaipi (Epic of Gilgamesh) hi calailam kutsuakpawl lakih theih hmaisabik mi pakhat a si. Babylonian san ta a si ih Sumerian ttong ih um mi thuanthupawl ihsin a ra suak mi a si. Sumerian thuanthupawl hi an upa zet (a malbik in 2100 B.C. hrawng tal an si thei men) nan a phuah taktak cu 1900 BC hrawng ih phuah mi a si men thei. Himi epic bezaipi ih thutlangpi ahcun huaisennaklam khaisannak (heroism), rualpiawknak (friendship), sunralnak (loss), le kumkhaw nunnak halnak (the quest for eternal life) tivekpawl an tel.

Calai sung ahhin sanphunglam caanbi dangdang tarlang an si hai. Phunpihuap thilthleng le hrinhnam huap thilthlengpawl, leilungpi rung umsuah thok dan pawl le nunphung le cindan rung suah dan thuhla pawl siseh, lungput ziaza lam (moral) asilole thlaraulam nun hrangih thuken (message) a nei mi puzungthu (myth) phunphun siseh, khawpi-um-hlan sanbipawl (pre-urban eras) ahcun an rak ngaihthupit bik mi an si. Thir san (Iron age) tirlam ihsin laili karlak hrawng ih ngan mi Homer ih epic bezaipipawl (Iliad le Odessey), le cumi hnu deuh hret ih rung suak Indian epic bezaipi ropi pawl (Mahayana le Mahabharata) cun calailam pianhmang nei ding in a hranpatei’ duangsuaktu (deliberate literary authorship) an run nei deuh. Asinan himi pawl khal hi, puzungthu hlun deuh pawl vek thotho in, ngansuah an si hlan ah kaa ih simsinawk cindan (oral tradition) thawn caanbi reipi sung a rak nung mi thotho an si.

Khawpi nunphung (urban culture) a tthansoh vivo rual in, nuncenphung tuan pawl (early civilizations) hrangih thlurhnei le khawruahphunglam calai (speculative and philosophical literature) darh-vivo-tertu cu fimzirtlawngpawl (academies) an hung si. Cumi in Hlanlai Tuluk, Hlanlai India, Persia le Hlanlai Greece le Rome pawl ah calai cu hmuntin ih thleng thei ding in a tuah. Caanbi hmaisa pawl ih calailam kutsuak tampi cu, thuanthurel ruang-am (narrative form) hmangtu calai kutsuak tiang khal tel in, lungput ziaza thlengawknak asilole nun kaihruai ding tumtahnak (convert moral or didactic purpose) nei ih duan suah an si. Tthimnak ah Sanskrit calai ih Panchatantra asilole Ovid ih Pianhmang Thlengawknakpawl (Metamorphoses) tivek.

Khawpi nunphung in thlirtu mipi (public audience) tam sinsin a neihter, lehhnu ahcun cabu sutsuah remcang ding in siartu mipi tam sinsin a neihter ruangah, thuanthucawn le deusiahca (satire) khal an tthangso vivo. Bulpak thinlung tontuarnaklam luhcilhnak a si mi Lyric biazai cu (epic biazai ih linglet in) uktupawl le miphun u pawl (courts and aristocratic circles) hrang liauliau vek ih a um cang a tam. A hleice in Nisuahlam Asia khawmualpi ahcun Chinese miphun u pawl in hlapawl kha bezai ih hmang in an khongkhawm hai. Cui’ an khonkhawm mi lak ih hminsin tlak bik cu Shijing asilole Hla Bu (Book of Songs) a si. Caanbi rei zet sung, senpi zaran in an uar mi thuanthu bezai (balladry- kalhmang nei in an sak ttheu) le hla pawl cu an luhkalh aw rero ih, lehhnu khal ah calai khawvel ih um biazai tiang an run hliahkhuh.

Hlanlai Tuluk ram ih, calai hmaisalam ih hmuitinmi hleice cu khawruahphung (philosophy), sannganphung (historiography), raldothiamnaklam dengfelphung (military science), cin-thlawh-rian (agriculture), le biazai pawl an si. Santhar cahnah tuahdan le ca sutsuahnak zanthing cafang bel pawl (woodblocks) rak tuahsuahnak hmun a si mi Tuluk hin, leitlun ih ca sutsuahnak nunphung hmaisabik pakhat a rak sersuak. Tuluk calai tampi cu Nisuahlam Zhou Hrinkumpi (Eastern Zhou Dynasty) san (769-269 BCE) ih a rak um mi Ruahnak Zakhat Tlawngpawl (Hundred Schools of Thought) ah hram an bun. Cumi san ih suak mi rotling calai lakih a thupibik pawl ah Rotling Confucius phungthluk (Confucianism), Rotling Dao phungthluk (Daoism), Rotling Mo phungthluk (Mohism), Rotling Daan phungthluk (Legalism), le raldothiamnaklam dengfelphung kutsuakpawl (tthimnak ah Sun Tzu ih The Art of War), le Tuluk sanphung (tthimnak ah, Sima Qian ih Records of the Grand Historian) tivekpawl an tel. Hlanlai Tuluk calai cun sannganphung hi a ngaihsak zet ih, caan tampi ahcun uktu (siangpahrang) innsang sungih hminsin ngankhum mi a cip a ciar tiang in a luhcilh. Thuanthusim kalhmang ih duansuah mi sanphung (narrative history) zohtthim theih pakhat cu Zuo Zhuan a si ih, himi hi 389 BCE hlan ih ngan mi si in, BCE zabi panga lai ih rak nung mitcaw sanphungthiam Zuo Qiuming ih ngan mi ah ruat a si.

Hlanlai India ram ahcun caai cu kaa ih simsawngawk vivo mi thuanthupawl ihsin a thok. Calai phunhmin hmaisalam cu thuanthucawn, thuanthufim (fable), hrilfiahbu (sutras) le epic biazai an si. Sanskrit calai hi 1500-1000 BCE karlak ih suak Veda cabupawl ihsin a thok ih, Idia Thir San (Iron Age India – 1100 – 200 BC karlak) ih Sanskrit Epic bezaipipawl thawn a rung nung vivo. Veda cabupawl hi sunsak hlawh cahlawm hlunbik pawl (oldest sacred texts) lakah an tel. Samhitas (vedic collections – veda cabu khonkhawm) cu a hrawpi ih rel in 1500-1000 BCE hrawngah a suak ih, zohfelnak le remkhawmnak cu 1000-500 BCE karlak ah tuah a si. Cumi ihsin Vedic caanbi (Vedic period) a rung suak ih, Vedic caanbi hi BCE kumthawngbi pahnihnak laili ihsin kumthawngbi pakhatnak laili, asilole Dar San Nelam le Thir San tiang a daih. BC zabi 6-nak ihsin 1-nak karlak ah Indian epic bezaipi huvang ngahbik pahnih, Mahabharata le Ramayana, cu duansuah le zohfel a si. Himi epic bezaipi pahnih hi zohfelnak tuah non rero a si; AD zabi palinak tiang in.

Hlanlai Greece ram ahcun Homer ih ngan mi Iliad le Odyssey, le Hesiod ih ngan mi Works and Days le Theogony pawl hi a tuanbik lakih tel, le Hlansan Greek calai ih huvang ngahbik (most influential) an si. Greek rotling calai phunhmin lakah khawruahphung, biazai, sannganphung, lunghlim thuanthucawnpawl (comedies), le thuanthucawnpawl an tel. Plato le Aristotle in Nitlaklam khawruahphung (Western philosophy) ih lungphum (foundation) a rung si leh mi khawruahphunglam cahlawmpawl an rak ngan; Sappho le Pindar cu huvang ngah zet lyric bezaipupawl an si ih; Herodotus le Thucydides cu Greek sanphungthiam hmaisa an si. Hlanlai Greece ram ah thuanthucawn hi a lar zet nan, rotling san ih an rak ngan le suah (performed) mi lungkuai thuanthucawnpawl (tragedies) lak ihsin tuini tiang ih hmuh theih mi cu mi pathum ih thuanthucawnpawl lawng an si. Cui’ mi pathum cu Aeschylus, Sophocles, le Euripides an si. Aristophanes ih thuanthucawnpawl hi Lunghlim Thuanthucawn Hlun (Old Comedy) ti ih hmin pek mi lunghlim thuanthucawn calai phunhmin hrangah tahtthimnak ih hman thei ding in a rung tang mi ah an cang. Hivek thuanthucawn phun hi Greek lunghlim thuanthucawn phunhmin hmaisabik a si ih, tuini tiang in himi thuanthucawn phunhmin simfiangnak ah hman a si ttheu.
Romanpawl ih ngan mi sanphungpawl le nunthuanthupawl cu sanlaili calai (mediavel literature) ih a rung suak mi mithiangpawl ih nunram thuhlapawl le mangbangza thuhla ngankhum mi sansiarbupawl (miraculous chronicles) hrangih meisa rak muahtu an si. Asinan San Laita (Middle Age) ih calai ruang-am langsarbik cu romance a si. Himi romance ahhin zuamsuahnak (adventurous) thuhlapawl ngan an si ih, a cangcang ahcun mipi hip-thei-zet-tu dawi lam thuanthu (magical narrative) khal an telh ttheu. Khawruah tthangharh san (Renaissance) lai ahcun casutnak sersuah a si ruangah elawknaklam, sakhawlam, ramkhellam le kaihhruaiawknaklam calai (controversial, religious, political and instructional literature) an hung karhzai. Sanlaili romance khal kha cangtu sirhsan le thluakruahnaklam hman tam a si mi thuanthu ruang-am (character-based and psychological form of narrative) ah an hung thleng aw. Cumi cu nunthuleng timi ih a hung tthangso mi an si ih, tahtthimnak thupi pawl cu Tuluk thuanthubu Zawng (Monkey) le German thuanthubu Faust cabupawl (Faust books) an si.

Talhton Khawruahnak San (Age of Reason) ahcun khawruahphunglam ngancapawl (philosophical tracts) le sanphung le milai sinak luhcilhnakpawl (speculations on history and human nature) an tthansohnak cu calai thawn siseh, zatlanglam le ramkhellam tthansohnak thawn siseh an sihcih aw hai ih an tthangso rual vivo. Cumi in hrial theih lo ih a hrinsuah mi cu zabi 18 cemlam ih a hung puakkuai mi Romantic phungthluk (Romanticism) a si. Romantic phungthluk hin romance hlun pawl ih sungtuahnak le thlamphainak lam rong an kainak (imaginative and fantastical bias of old romances) le simsin calai (folk-literature) kha a somso sal ih, mibulpak tontehnak le thinlung cangvaihnak (emotion) kha a ret thupibik. Asinan zabi 19 a rung kaisoh vivo tikah Europe khawmual ih suangtuah sersuah calai (fiction) cu kengkawhdik phungthluk (realism) le khuarel phungthluk (naturalism) lam ah a her. Kengkawhdik le khuarel phungthluk pawl cu hringnun le zatlangnun hertthawndan taktak pawl kha cipciar zet ih hminsin ngankhumnak (the meticulous documentation of real life and social trends) an si. Khuarel phungthluk ih rahsuah (output) tamsawn cu talhton tlak le elbuaitawk tlak thufun an nei hai ih, zatlangnun le ramkhel kalhmang thlengawknak khal an hliahkhuh hai. Asinan zabi 20 sungih suangtuah sersuah nunthuleng (fiction) le thuanthucawn (drama) cu minung bulpak sunglam nun ah kir sal in, theih-lo-thinlung (unconscious) a cokthotu thilpawl le zatlangnun le kiangkap boruak in mibulpak nun a delhritnakpawl (pressures) an ngaihsak. Proust, Eliot, Joyce, Kafka le Pirandello tivek cangantupawl in a lenglam ih thil thleng taktak pawl hnakin minung sunglam nun umtudan kha hminsin ngankhumnak an tuah sawn hai.

Kalhmang phunhmin hranpa nei nunthuleng (genre fiction) khal, duanmi kalhmang pawl (fixed formulus) a nei ko nan, a selam ih thlirtu zingzoitu (skeptical detective) nunthuleng le dengfelphung nunthuleng (science fiction) ih a tak a si theinak zawn pawl hmang in, zabi kul ih a ruang-am pianhmang khal in sitaknak (reality) parah thusuhnak a tuah thei zia a langter ko. Tiluankawrpi (mainstream) le phunhmin hranpa nei (genre, journalism khal tel in) ih tthentthekawknak cu caanbi a liam rual in a mal vivo; tui kanmai’ caanbi tiang hin. William Burroughs ih kutsuak hmaisalam pawl, le Hunter S. Thompson ih kutsuakpawl zoh tikah, Leitlun Ralbuai ttumhnihnak hnu cun hminsin ngamkhum mi thuthannak (documentary reporting) kha bulpak hmuh-ruahdan nasatei’ telh mi pianhmang tiang an neihter ti kan hmu thei. Post-modern fakseltupawl in a tlangpithu ih kengkawhdik a si mi thuhla tarlang theih a si timi ruahnak an kekkuaiter fawn.

Biazai (Poetry)
Bezai cu becang (verse) kalhmang ih ngansuah mi a si (verse timi hi epic le thuanthucawn pianhmang nei fiction hrang khal ih hman a si dah nan). Bezaipawl cun ttong ih thlimthluainaklam tlamtlinnakpawl (aesthetic qualities) kha sullam danglam suahter ding ah le thinlung tontuarnak cok tho ding in an hmang. Bezaipawl cu thuhla khaikhin phuansuahnak (imagery) le khaikhin anhmui (metaphor) ah tampi an tthum aw; awfang rit umtudan (patterns of stresses) ih a tthum aw mi awkhiah ruangkham (rhythmic structure – metric feet) an nei tla a si thei asilole rotling bezai phuahdan (classical prosody) vek in awfang saudan (patterns of different-length syllables) parih a tthum aw mi tla an si thei; cun, ttelh (rhyme) an nei tla a si thei, nei lo tla a si thei. Bezai ruang-am (poetic form) bang aw lo tampi an um ruangah biazai hi simfiang le a si dan phorhsuah a har thei. Asinan a tlangpithu cun, calai ruang-am a nei mi biazai (poetry as a form of literature) cun a hman mi ttongfangpawl in an neih mi thilpawl (properties) kha a hmang ttheu. Nganmi asilole relsuahmi ttongfangpawl ih neih mi thilpawl kha, an tican (sullam) ih ttawntemnak um lo in, a hmang ttheu. Tthimnak ah, awkhiah cu ttongfang pakhat ih a um mi awfang um zat (number of syllables) asilole cui’ awfangpawl in aw-rit (stressed syllable) an neihdan hmang in duansuah theih a si ih; ttelh le awnolh (alliteration) cu ttongfangpawl ih awn parah a tthum aw.

Talhton rero dan cun, biazai hi calai ruang-am dang pawl hnak in a suak hmasabik. Bezai hmaisalam tahtthimnak pek theih lakah Sumerian-pawl ih Gilgamesh ih Epic Bezaipi (2700 B.C. hrawng ih suak), Bible sungih cabu tthenkhat, Homer ih kutsuakpawl lak ihsin a rung nungdam mi pawl (Iliad le Odyssey), le Indian-pawl ih Ramayana le Mahabharata bezaipipawl an tel. Nunphung parih a tthum aw mi, kaa ih simsinawk vivo cindan (oral tradition) thawn a rak nung mi biazai cun a tlangpithu in cinken ol ding zawng ih duansuah an si hai ih; thuhla thupi zetzet a si mi, tthimnak ah - daan, hrinphunglam (genealogical) asilole lungput ziaza lam tivek hi a hmaisabik ahcun becang ruang-am (verse form) thawn an rak suak tla a si thei.

Biazai tthenkhat cun ruang-am hranpa (specific form) an hmang. Tthimnak ah haiku, limerick, le sonnet tivek. Japanese miphun cindan ih ngan mi haiku biazai cu khuarel (nature) thuhla a si ttheu ih, onji (awfang) hleisarih tel in, catlang pathum ah tthen a si. A hmaisabik catlang ah awfang panga, catlang pahnihnak ah awfang pasarih, catlang pathumnak ah awfang panga, ti’n ret a si ih, cui’ haiku bezai sung ahcun kigo (siksa/season a khihhmuhtu ttongfang) a tel a ttul fawn. Limerick bezai cun catlang panga a nei ih, a ttelh ningkhawng (rhyme scheme) cu AABBA si in, catlangpawl cu 3, 3, 2, 2, 3 in awfang rit a neitu an si a ttul. Asinan limerick cun hlan deuh ihsin khuarel ngaihlutnak a pholang lemlo. Pianhmang nei bezai ruangkham (formal poetic structure) a thlunlotu biazai cu “cang zalen” (free verse) ti’n kawh a si.

Ttong ih ziarang le cindan (tradition) in bezai tahkhawng (poetic norm) tthenkhat cu a uk. Persian biazai cun ttelh an neih ringring lai ah Greek biazai cun ttelh an nei mal zet. Ttong tthenkhat cu a dang ttongpawl hnakin ttelh ttongfang (rhyming word) an nei tam deuh. Tthimnak ah Italian ttong ahcun bezai sau zet pakhat khal khi ttelh hman sian cin nei ih tuah ding khal ah daih thluh thei khop in ttelh ttongfang a tam. Hiti ih ttelh ttongfang an neih tamnak san cu an ttongfangpawl a cemdan ruang-am bang aw (cemdan kalhmang bang aw) vivo a tam ruangah a si. English cu ttong dang ihsi lak mi, cemdan kalhmang bang aw lo, ttongfang phunphun neitu a si vek in ttelh lam ah a lian lo. Shakespeare le Milton ih kutsuak cuangmuar zet pawl ihsi kan hmuh vek in, English biazai lakih kalhmang cuangmuarbik tiah ruah theih a si mi blank verse ahcun iambic pentameter (iambic awkhiah panga a um mi bezai catlang) hman a si ih, ttelh a um lo.

Ttong tthenkhat cu bezai catlang sau deuh thawn an mil aw ih, ttong tthenkhat cu a tawi deuh thawn an mil aw. Hivek bezai phuahsuahdan ning le khawng (conventions) tthenkhat an ra suahnak san cu ttong pakhat ih a um mi ttongfang le ttongkalhmang (grammar) kha ruangkham (structure) pakhat ih hman cih mai a ol ruang ah a si. Tthimnak ah ttong dang hnak in ttongfang sau sawn a neitu Greek le German ttong tivek ahcun bezai catlang sau hman hi a um cih mai. Bezai phuahdan ning le khawng tthenkhat lala cu sanphunglam tipangthil (historical accident) ruangah a ra suak mi an si. Ttong pakhat a hmangtupawl in biazai ttha timi cu a thiam hleice mi asilole a hmin a thang mi bezaipu pakhat ih a rak phuah mi bezai ruang-am vek a si ti ih an ruat caan ah hivek a thleng ttheu.

Thuanthucawn suahnak hmun (theatre) hrangih duansuah mi kutsuakpawl cun cindan tlangpi ahcun bezai ruang-am an nei ttheu. Asinan tuisan ahcun bezai ruang-am hman hi, opera le awnmawi thawi’ rawi mi thuanthucawn tivek lo ahcun, a mal thlang. Asinan mi tampi cun thuanthucawn ttong (language of drama) cu bezai kalhmang nei a si lai thotho tiah an ttang hrih tla a si thei.

Kum dunglam kum naite pawl ihsin digital biazai (digital poetry) a hung suak. Digital biazai hin thiamzunglam (artistic), sutsuahnaklam (publishing), le digital media ihsi ngah thei mi hamtthatnak dangdang a run hmang.

Essay-pawl (Essays)
Essay pakhat ahcun, Michel de Montaigne asilole Charles Lamb ih kutsuakpawl ih an tarlang bang in, thulu (topic) pakhat kha cangantui’ bulpak thlirnak (author’s personal point of view) ihsi ruahrelnak (discussion) a tel.

English ttongfang ih “Essay” timi hi French ttongfang “essayer” ihsi ra a si ih “zuamsuahsinh-nak” tican a si. Curuangah thuhla ong-aw (thutluknak tuah hran lo) mi essay siseh, thinlung cok tho ding zawng asilole ruat peh duhnak um ding zawng (provocative) ih ngan mi essay siseh, thuhla famkim tarlang hran lo ih cemter mi (inconclusive) essay siseh, hmuh ding an um. “Essays” timi ttongfang hi Michel de Montaigne in amah le mah a phorhsuahawknak (self-reflective) capawl hrangih hman hmaisabik mi a si ih, anih hi himi calai ruang-am ih khaipa tiah a hmin a thang.

Essay thawn a pehpar mi calai phunhmin (genre) ah a hnuai ihta pawl khal hi an tel tla a si thei.
- Hminsinca (memoir), cangantu in amai’ nunram thuhla kha amai’ bulpak thlirnak ihsi a ngan mi
- Cakuat (epistle): a tlangpithu cun kalhmang felfai a nei mi (formal), nun kaihhruaiawknaklam (didactic) a si mi, asilole cungcuannak a nei mi cakuat khi an si ttheu.
- Japanese mi Lady Murasaki ih kutsuakpawl, Ibn Tufail ih ngan mi Arabic ca Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, Ibn al-Nafis ih ngan mi Arabic ca Theologus Autodidactus, le Chinese mi Luo Guanzhong ih ngan mi Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Europe khawmualpi ih nunthuleng hmaisa pawl cu calai hmelhmang hranpa ah siar an rak si lo; himi hi thutluang ngan menmen cu ol-ai le thupit hmel lo ih a lang ruangah a si thei. Asinan bezai ruang-ampawl a keng tel lo mi thutluang nganca khal in thlimthluainaklam lunghlimnak (aesthetic pleasure) a pe suak thei ti a hung fiang vivo. Cuihleiah bezai ruangkham (verse structure) a hmanglotu cangantu zalen pawl ih nganca cu thuanthu biazai (narrative poetry) ih kan hmuh tlangpi mi hnakih a hnok sawn mi thuanthu khawngkham (plot) asilole thuhla cipciar a tarlang theitu an si caan tampi a um. Himi zalennak hin cangantu kha nunthuleng pakhat sungah, biazai lala khal tel in, calailam le phosuahnaklam kalhmang (literary and presentation) phunphun tuahsinh vivo thei ding in a tuah fawn.

Thutluang calai dang (Other prose literature)
Khawruahphunglam (Philosophical), sanphunglam (historical), thuthanglam (journalistic), le dengfelphunglam (scientific) ngancapawl hi cindan tlangpi ahcun calai ah ngai an si. Tuini tiang in a tang lai mi nganca hlunbik tthenkhat cu hivekpawl an si. Nunthuleng le thutluang thuanthu pawl hin “fiction” (suangtuahnak thawi’ sersuah mi nganca) timi hmin an run keng. Himi hi cangantupawl in sanphung lamtluan ah thutluang hmangih an rak ngan ttheu mi thuhlangh ngaingai nganca (factual writing) asilole sersuah si lo nganca (nonfiction) lak ihsin danglamternak hrangah a si.

Khuarel dengfelphung (Natural science)
Tthansohnak le a hranpatei luhcilhnak (specialization) in dengfelphunglam zirhliahnak thar pawl cu casiartu tamsawn ih thawtpi ban lo mi ih a canter thlang ruangah, dengfelphung nganca ih “calailam” hmelhmang thuhla hi, kan dunglam kumzabi pahnih ihsi khan, relsuah cang a mal vivo. Tuini ahcun dengfelphung cu journal-pawl ah ngan le suah an sibik thlang. Aristle, Copernicus, le Newton pawl ih kutsuakpawl cun manmual ropi (great value) an nei lai ko nan, an nganca sungih dengfelphung thuhla tam zet cu an kum a cem zo (outdated) ruangah, dengfelphunglam kaihhruaitu an ttuan nawn lo. Calailam zirnak programme tamsawn hrang ahcun, zir tel ding ah, an thiamninglam rong an kaituk (too technical) lala fawn. Dengfelphung sanphung (history of science) zirnak programme lenglam ahcun, cuvek kutsuakpawl cu tlawngtapawl in an siar tuk lemlo.

Khawruahphung (Philosophy)
Khawruahphung khal hi academic discipline lam ah a her nasa thlang. Calai khawvel ihsi khawruahphung hmin a malh vivo ruangih riahsetu khawruahphung luhcilhtupawl (practitioners) hi, calai khawvelihsi dengfelphung a malh vivo ruangih riahsetu dengfelphung luhcilhtupawl hnakin an tam sawn. Asinan khawruahphunglam kutsuak tamsawn cu academic journal-pawl sawn ah suah an si thotho. Sanphung lamtluan ih khawruahphung mithiam pipa a si mi Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Augustine, Descartes, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche pawl cu tahfung tling calai (canon) ah an cang ko. Tunai deuh ih khawruahphung kutsuak tthenkhat khal “calai” timi thulu co ngah ve ding ih ttanpinak (elbuaiawknak) a um; tthimnak ah Simon Blackburn ih kutsuakpawl tivek. Asinan khawruahphung kutsuak thar tamsawn cu calai khawvel ih siar tel ding ah ruat an si lo ih, zirnak hmunhma (area) tthenkhat, tthimnak ah logic tivek, phei cu siarkop (mathematics) thawi’ bang aw vohvo tiang in thiamninglam rong an kai luar (extremely technical) zo.

Sanphung (History)
Sanphunglam nganca tam zet cu calai ah telh an si, a hleice in duansuah thiamnak hmang ih ngan mi sersuah si lo ngana (creative nonfiction) kutsuakpawl khi calai ah telh an si. Cubang in thuthanglam nganca (journalism) tam zet, tthimnak ah calailam thuthang nganca (literary journalism) tivek, cu calai ih siar tel theih mi an um ve. Asinan himi hmunram (sanphung le thuthangca) hi amah hrimhrim ah a hruang a kuar luartuk thlang ih, hmansuah si ding ih tumtahnak nei in (primarily utilitarian purpose) ngan mi an si ruangah himi hmunram ih suak mi nganca tampi cu calailam tlinnak (literary quality) an neih lo phah ttheu. An ngansuah mi thuhla le thilthleng kha cun thlimthluainaklam hrangih tlinnak tthasawn (mipi thinlung hip neh sawn) tla an rak neih cang tampi a um nan, thilthleng hminsin ding asilole thuthang tharhlam kha a rang theibik ih thansuah ding tivek tumtah a si ttheu ruangah calailam tlinnak an tlaksam phah-ttheu-nak a si. Calailam kutsuak neitu ih siar mi sanphung mithiam (historian) pipa pawl cu Herodotus, Thucydides, le Procopius an si ih, annih hi calailam tahfung tling kutsuak neitu ah ret an si.

Daan (Law)
Daan hi calai ih a tel le tel lo ramri a fiang lo deuh. Plato le Aristotle ih nganca tthenkhat, Babylon siangpahrang Hammurabi ih duansuahmi daanpawl (law tables), asilole Bible ih cabu hmaisalam pawl khal va si sehla, daanlam calai (legal literature) tiih hmuh theih an si. Byzantine Kumpiram (Empire) ih Kumpi (Emperor) Justinian I san lai ih rak duansuah mi Roman rammipi daan (civil law) tla cu calai langsar pakhat dinhmun in a hmin a thang. Ram tampi ih dinsuahawknak thuhla ngankhum mi capawl (founding documents), Daanhrampi (Constitution) le Daan Code-pawl (Law Codes) tel in, cu calai ah rel an si thei; asinan, daanlam nganca tamsawn cun calailam cuangmuarnak (literary merit) an nei mumal lo, thuhla a-kip-a-kawi ih relnak (ttong tamtuk pawl ih thurelnak vek) hmel an put cang a tam ttheu.

Thuanthucawn (Drama)
Lemcan (play) asilole thuanthucawn (drama) hin kum tampi sung tiang a rung suak peh vivo mi rotling calai ruang-am (classical literary form) in hmuhter. Thuanthucawn cun a tlangpithu in cangtupawl (characters) pakhat le pakhat biakawknak (dialogue) kha a tarlangbik ih, a siar ih siar ding lam hnak in thuanthucawn cansuahnak hmun ih cansuah ding ah hmuitin mi a si tlangpi. Zabi 18 le 19 pawl ah biazai, thuanthucawn, le awnmawi (music) komkhawmnak a si mi opera a rung tthangso. Kan dunglam rei tuk lo tiang hrawng ahcun thuanthucawn hmuahhmuah deuhthaw in bezai ruang-am ih ngan an rak si. Shakespeare hi thuanthucawn ah ruat theih a si (Thuanthucawn ngantu ropi a si). Tthimnak ah Romeo le Juliet thuanthucawn cu mi vualvo in calai ih pom tlang cio mi rotling romantic thuanthucawn a si.

Greek thuanthucawn hi kan theih thei mi thuanthucawn ruang-am lakih a hmasabik an si. Thuanthucawn phunhmin (genre) pakhat a si mi Tragedy (Lungngainak thawn a cem mi thuanthucawn) cu sakhawlam (religious) le misenpi thawn a pehpar mi puai (festival) tivek ih cansuah (performed) mi si in a rak tthangso. A tlangpithu cun sanphunglam asilole puzungthulam (historical or mythological) ih theih lar a si cia mi thuhlapawl cansuahsalnak asilole cumi parah hrambun ih tthansohter mi thuhla cansuahnak tivek a si ttheu. Tragedy thuanthucawnpawl ih thufun (theme) cu an khunkhan (serious) zet ttheu. Ningthiamphung (technology) tthansohnak thar a suak vivo ih, donsang (stage) ih cansuah ding mi si lo in media hmangih cansuah sawn ding ah an ngan ttheu mi duancapawl (scripts) cu ‘drama’ timi thulu hnuai ah telh an rung si ve. 1938 kum ah radio ihsin War of the Worlds an cansuah mi cu radio ih cansuah ding ah duansuah mi calai kutsuak hmaisabik a si. Thuanthucawn tampi cu zuknung asilole TV hrangih hman an si zo fawn. Khatlamah TV, zuknung, le radio calai khal cabu ih sutsuah asilole electronic media ih thehdarh an si caan a um fawn.

Simsin calai (Oral Literature)
Simsin calai timi cun nganmi si lo in, kaa ih simsinawk vivo cindan hmang ih kilkhawi mi calai kha a khihhmuh ih, cumi ah epic, biazai le thuanthucawn, zatlang thuanthupawl (folktales), ballad-pawl (ballads) tivek in a phunphun an tel. Asinan himi thuhla kawkalh (oxymoron) hi elbuaiawknak a um mi a si ih, dengfelphung mit thawi’ khua a thlirtupawl cun a tlangpithu in an cohlang lo (Literature timi cu ‘cafangpawl thawi’ tuah mi’ tican a si ih, Oral timi cu ‘kaa ih simsawngawk mi’ tican a si ruangah himi ttongfang pahnih ret tlang tikah a thuhla a kawkalh tiah an ruatnak a si). Mi tthenkhat cun a ttongfang bulhram umtudan ruangih buainak (etymological question) um lo ding beisei in “simsin thuanthurel cindan” (oral narrative tradition), “sunsakmi thuhla simsinawk cindan” (oral sacred tradition), “simsin biazai” (oral poetry) asilole epic ti’n simaw, biazai tin simaw (ngansuah a ttul tengteng lo mi hmin) hman an duhsawn lai ah, midang tthenkhat lala cun “orature” (oral le literature kom mi) ti ih ttongfang thar sersuah lawlaw an duh.

Thuanthurel Ruang-am dang pawl (Other narrative forms)
- Electronic calai cu digital a hmang mi khawvel (digital environment) ihsin a ra suak thok mi kutsuakpawl a tel mi calai phunhmin (literary genre) a si.
- Zuknung, video le TV ihsi suah mi bungpeh (soap) opera tivek, thutluang nunthuleng le thuanthu ih hmuitinmi vek thotho a neitu.

- Graphic nunthulengpawl (graphic novels) le comic cabupawl cu thiamzung kutsuak (artwork), biakawknak (dialogue) le cahlawm (text) kha a pehpeh ih rel vivo mi thuanthupawl an si.

Calai ih phunhminpawl (Genres of literature)
Calailam phunhmin timi cu calai cazin tthendan kalhmang a si. French ttongfang ihsin a ra ih, ci asolole phun (type or class) hranpa si ding ih ruah mi kha anmah le an phun mil ih retkhawmnak a khihhmuh. Asinan cuvek ih tthen mi phunhminpawl cu a thleng aw thei mi an si ih, caanbi dangdang le cindan dangdang ah duhsan dangdang nei ih hman an rak si ttheu fawn.

Calailam kalhmangpawl (Literary techniques)
Calailam kalhmang asilole calai bungrua (literary device) cu cangantu in calai kutsuak pakhat ih ruangpi (frame) dinsuahnak ah siseh, hmual nei sinsin ding ih tuahnak ah siseh, a hmang thei. Calailam kalhmang timi hin kutsuak pakhat duansuahnak hrangih naihniamdan phun tampi a huap. Kutsuak pakhat cu pakhatnak minung (first-person, keimah timi dinhmun) ih relsuah mi a si maw, asilole thlirnak hmun dang ihsin relsuah mi a si tivek siseh, cindan thlun thuanthureldan a si mi thudung thuhmai a sangsangtei’ um vivo kalhmang a hmang ding maw asilole thudung thuhmai umtudan a sangsangtei’ tuah hran lo mi kalhmang a hmang ding tivek siseh, a hman ding ah ziangvek calai phun a hril, tivekpawl hi an zate’n calailam kalhmang hmannak khihhmuhtu an si. Casiartu in calai kutsuak pakhat ih um ding ah an theih nel zo mi (familiar structure and presentation to a work), tthimnak ah tualthahnak-ziangruangah a thi ih zo in a that ti theihtheih mai lo mi thuhla tarlangnak nunthuleng (murder-mystery-novel) tivek, a um khal hin cuvek calailam kalhmang a um ti a khihhmuh. Khatlam ah, cangantu in casiartu kha a theih dah lo mi calailam kalhmang thawi’ thinthirter (to surprise) ding in kalhmang thar a sersuak thei thotho fawn.

Cutivek ih kalhmang hmansuahnak in calai phun thar tthansohnak a thlenter thei. Tthimnak ah santhar nunthuleng hmaisabik pakhata si mi Samuel Richardson ih Pamela nunthuleng cu cakuatawkton rero mi lawrkhawm mi pianhmang in ngan a si. Cuvek kalhmang cu ‘cakuat kalhmang’ (epistolary technique) tiah kawh a si ih, himi kalhmang thawn, Pamela nunthuleng cun cakuat nunthuleng (epistolary novel) cindan cu cak sinsin ding ah a nor so. Hivek kalhmang hi a hlan khal ah hman a rak si nan Pamela nunthuleng tluk cun pompi an rak hlawh lo.

Calailam kalhmang le calai bungrua hi, doawknaklam ruahrelnak (military strategy) le doawknaklam kalhmang (military tactic) an danglamawk vek in an danglam aw. Bungruapawl cu thuanthu pakhat sungah, cui thuanthu kha hmual nei ding ih tuahnak hrangah hman mi an si. Tahtthimnak ah khaikhin anhmui (metaphor) tahtthim anhmui (simile), ttongfang hrelhhrim anhmui (ellipsis), thuhla nolhsalnakpawl (narrative motifs), le ai-awh hmuithlam hmang ih thuhla relsuahnak kalhmang (allegory) tivekpawl hi calai bungrua ah an tel. Ttongfang herhkualnak (word play) menmen hman hi calai bungrua a si thotho. Theihthinlung ihsi a rung luansuahdandan ih thuhla relnak kalhmang (stream-of-conciousness narrative) tivek, thuanthu relsuahnak ningkhawng (narrative mode) khal hi calai bungrua ah a rettu an um tla a si thei.

Calai fakselnak (literary criticism) cun fakselnak kalhmang (critique) le calai kutsuak pakhat ih manmual bikhiahnak (evaluation) a khihhmuh ih, hmun tthenkhat ahcun, ngan rero lai mi kutsuak asilole rotling kutsuak pakhat tthansohter ding tumtah ih hman cang khal a um. Tthimnak ah cansuah rero lai mi thuanthucawn fakselnak tivek cu cui’ thuanthucawn kha tthangso sinsin seh timi hmuitin ih tuah a si. Calailam zohfeltupawl (literary editors) khal in hna an ttuanpi mi cangantupawl hrangah cuvek hnattuan thotho kha an ttuan thei ve. Calai fakselnak phun tam zet a um ih, cumi pakhat cio cu calai kutsuak pakhat kha phun dangdang ih fakselnak hrangah siseh, kutsuak pakhat ih hmelhmang dangdang faksel phosuahnak ah siseh, hman theih an si.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature