Tuahmawh Tuartu Ttong

Tuahmawh Tuartu Ttong

(Endangered Language)

Tuahmawh mi ttong asilole tuahmawh a tuartu ttong (endangered language) timi cu a hmangtu minung pawl an thihhloh ruangah asilole a hmangtu minung pawl in ttong dang an hman sawn thlang ruangih hman mal vivo mi ttong khi a si. Ttong pakhat cu mai’ tappi ttong ih hmangtu minung (native speaker) a neih lo ahcun a riaral vivo ih, ttong thi (dead language) ah a cang ttheu.

           

A netkhawt ah, cui’ ttong cun hmangtu a nei nawn lo lawlaw a si ahcun ttong daireh (extinct language) ah a cang. Minung sanphung (history) lamtluan ah ttong tamngaipi an rak daireh (extinct) zo ih, globalization le colony-phungthluk thar (neo-colonialism) ruangah tuisan khal ah ttong tthenkhat cu an daireh rero. Ziangahtile globalization le colony-phungthluk thar ruangah sumsiamlam thazang cak ttong pawl (economically powerful languages) in ttong dang pawl an silhkhuh vivo ruangah a si (1). A tlangpithu cun ttongsuah tam mi (more commonly spoken) ttong pawl in ttongsuah mal mi ttong an silhkhuh vivo ruangah, ttongsuah mal mi ttong cu a hmangtu mipum an mal vivo ttheu.

           

Leitlun ah ttong paziat an um ti hi fiangfai ngaingai cun theih a si lo. Rinruahdan phunphun khal an ttansan thuhla pawl ih zir in an dang aw vivo. A tlangpithu ih pom tlang dan ahcun ttong 6000 ihsin 7000 cu tuisan ahhin hman an si rero lai ih, cumi lak ih zatek 50-90% cu AD 2100 ahcun an daireh (hman an si nawn lo) ding ti a si. SIL International (Summer Institute of Linguistics International) in zirhliahnak thawi’ a hminsin-ngankhum mi leitlun ttong cazin, Ethnologue, ahcun 2005 ahkhan ttong 6912 a um ih, cumi lak ihsin 32.8% (ttong 2,269) cu Asia khawmualpi ah, le 30.3% (ttong 2,092) cu Africa khawmualpi ah an um (2).

           

Ttong daireh (riaral) zik rero an tamnak hmun pawl cu Nisuahlam Siberia, Laili Siberia (Central Siberia), Saklam Australia, Laili America, le Nitlak-saklam Pacific Plateau (Northwest Pacific Plateau) pawl an si. Oklahoma le Thlangta America thlanglam (Southern South America) khal ah awmang tawk an um.

           

Hman tambik mi ttong 20 (top 20 languages) cun hmangtu million 50 tlunlam an nei cio ih, himi tttong 20 hmangtu hi leitlun mipum ih zatek 50% an si. Culai ah ttong tthenkhat cu zatlanghlawm (community) fatakte pawl in an hmang ih, tampi cu a hmangtu 10,000 hnak ih mal tla an si (3).

           

Ram Ttangrual Fimthiamnaklam, Dengfelphunglam le Nunphunglam Pawlpi (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization/UNESCO) cun ttong tuahmawhnak thawn pehpar in simfiangnak level panga a tuah. Pakhatnak cu a him mi (safe) ttong a si. Pahnihnak cu hlovai olsam dinhmun ih ding mi (vulnerable) ttong a si ih, nauhakpawl in innsang lawng ah hmang in a lenglam khawvel ih an hman lo mi ttongpawl khi an si. Pathumnak cu tuahmawh tuar fiangfai (definitely endangered) ttong a si ih, nauhak pawl ih hman nawn lo mi ttong a si. Palinak cu bese zet ih tuahmawhmi ttong (severely endangered) a si ih, thlahsinfa (generation) upabik pawl lawng in an hman mi ttong pawl khi an si.  Panganak cu ttihphan um zet tuahmawhnak tuartu (critically endangered) ttong a si ih, kum upabik pawl lak hman ah mi malte lawng in an hman mi (a tlangpithu cun ttong dang thawi’ hman rawi phah) ttong a si.

           

Himi simfiangnak level ah tthum aw in, ttongphungthiam (linguist) Michael E. Krauss cun nauhak pawl in tuihnu kum 100 khal ah an hmang lai ding ti ih ruat theih mi ttong cu a him mi ttong a si tiah a sim. Tuihnu kum 100 ah nauhak pawl in an hman nawn lo ding mi ttong cu tuahmawhmi ttong ah a ret. Leitlun ih ttong pawl lak ah zatek 60-80% cu tuahmawh mi ttong cazin ahhin an um. Nauhakpawl in tuisan hman ih an hman nawn lo mi ttong cu a hnuk a cat cuahco thlang mi (moribund) ttong cazin ah a ret hai (4).

           

Ttong pakhat cu hmangtu tam zet hmansehla tuahmawh tuar ttong ah a cang thei. Tthimnak ah Indonesia ram ih ttong tthenkhat cu a hmangtu thawng hra tel an um ko nan nauhak pawl in an zir nawn lo, an hman nawn lo ruangah harsatnak hnuai ah an thleng. Indonesia ahhin hrinphun hlawm (ethnic group) 300 lenglo le ttong 250 lenglo a um nan, an phunpihuap ttong (national language), Indonesian, lawng an zir thluh thlang. Khatlam ah ttong tthenkhat cu a hmangtu 500 hrawng lawng an um nan a hmangtu zatlanghlawm in an tappi ttong ah an hmang ih, an nauhak pawl khal in an hmang thluh a si ahcun ttong nung zet ah ruat an si lala.

           

UNESCO in harsatnak hnuai ih a um mi ttong cazin a tuah mi ah ttong 2,500 an um. Cumi pawl cu him lo (unsafe), tuahmawh tuar fiangfel (definitely endangered), tuahmawhnak besia tuartu (severely endangered), ttihphan um zet tuahmawhnak tuar (critically endangered), le daireh (extinct) ti’n level panga ah a tthen bet (5). Kan dunglam thlahsinsan (generation) netabik pathum sung hman ahkhan leitlun ih ttong 200 lenglo cu ttong daireh ah an cang (6). Himi zawn ah ca tthenkhat ahcun UN ih rinruah (estimates) mi ttong daireh (tu naivai thilthu ih daireh mi) hi 2000 lenglo a si ti’n tarlang a si ih, leitlun ttong zatek 50 (a hrek) lenglo cun hmangtu 10,000 hnak ih mal an nei ih, tthen li tthen khat cu a hmangtu 1,000 hnak ih mal mi an si ti’n a um (7).

           

Tu naivai ih ttong riaral pakhat kan rel asile: Nilo-Saharan ttong hlawm lak ih pakhat a si mi, Sudan ram ih Komuz hrinphun ttong Gule (Anej ti tla’n an ko) cu hmangtu a nei nawn lo. A rak hmangtu pawl cu tu ahcun Arabic ttong an hmang thluh zo. Zabi 21 thoklam tiang ah Nilo-Saharan ttong hlawm lak ih ttong tampi cu a hmangtu minung pawl in ttong dang ih an tthawnsan vivo ruangah harsat an tong. Nilo-Saharan ttong pawl lak ih a tthenkhat cu a hmangtu 1,000 hnak ih mal an si; tthimnak ah Kuliak hrinphun ttong Nyang’i (Uganda), Surmic hrinphun ttong Kwegu (Ethiopia), le Nilotic hrinphun ttong Okiek (Kenya) tivekpawl (8).

Ttong An Hlohralnak Sanh pawl

           

Tuahmawhmi ttongpawl hrangih Cambridge Kutkaihbu (Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages) cun ttong in harsat an tonnak san langsar pali a tarlang. Cumi pali cu hlawm hnih ah tthen bet a si (9). Hlawm khatnak, ttong a hmangtu mipum an mal-vivo-nak asilole cui’ minung pawl in harsat an tonnak san pahnih:

1. Khuarellam kangsia-cakkhai pawl (natural disasters), ttam/pam (famine), natnak (disease). Tahtthimnak pakhat cu Andaman Tikulh pawl (Andaman Islands) ih um minung pawl an si. 2004 Indian Tifinriat linghnin le tsunami (tisuarfawnpi) in nasa zet in a siatsuah hai. Cumi ruangah mipum an mal phah. Mipum an mal phah tikah an ttong hmangtu khal an mal phah thluh tinak a si cih ve.

2. Ralbuainak (war), le thah-cimih-awknak (genocide). Himi hrangih tahtthimnak cu Tasmania (Australia ram ih tikulh ramkulh pakhat) ramkulh ih ramhrin hrinhnam pawl an si. Annihpawl hi colonist (ramnortu) in an that cimit hai. America khawmualpi ih ttong tam zet khal a hmangtu pawl thah-cimihnak an tuar ruangah harsatnak hnuai ah an ding. Nicaragua Hrilhoturam (Republic of Nicaragua) ih Miskito ttong, le Guatemala ram ih Mayan ttong pawl cu ram sung ral (civil war) in nasa zet in a siatsuah fawn.

Hlawm hnihnak, mai’ ttong hman theinak dawnkhamtu asiole hmang ngam lo ding ih tuahtu thil pahnih:

1. Ramkhellam delhkilhawknak (political repression). Himi hi phunhnam-ram (nation-state) dinhsuah tumnak hmun pawl ah a thleng tam zet mi a si. Phunpihuap nunphung pakhat (single national culture) dinhsuah tumnak ruangah ttong tenau dang pawl cu mipi tonkhawmnak hmun (public sphere), tlawnginn, media, le hmun dangdang ah hman an hlawh thei nawn lo ttheu ih, hmun tthenkhat ah phei cun ttong tenau hmuahhmuah cu hmang lo ding ih kham an si. A cancan ahcun hrinphun hlawm (ethnic group) tam zet cu hranhram in umnak hmun tthawnter an si. Asilole nauhak pawl cu hmun dang hlapi ih tlawngkai ding in tthawnsak an si. Asilole an nunphung le ttong humhual theinak ding canvo an hloh. Himi hi American ramhrin miphun (Native American) le Australian ttong pawl ah siseh, Europe le Asia khawmualpi ih ttong tenau pawl a si mi France ram ih Breton asilole Alsatian ttong, le Turkey ram ih Kurdish ttong tivek in siseh, an ton rero mi a si. Kannih Chin miphun khal in kan tong rero zo ih, kan tong rero lai.

2. Nunphunglam/ ramkhellam/sumsiamlam engh-tthawnnak/hliahkhuhawknak (cultural/ political/economic marginalization/hegemony). Himi hi ttong le nunphung pakhatkhat kha ramkhellam le sumsiamlam thazang (power) thawn naivai zet ih a sihhngetawk ruangah, mi pakhat kha amai’ ttong (amah le a fanau pawl tel thluh in) hmang nawn lo in hamtthatnak a um sawn mi ttong hmang ding ih hiptu a umnak hmun ah a suak ttheu mi a si. Himi hi ramhrin (indigenous) miphun hlawm khat in zatlanglam hmelhmang (social status) sang deuh ngah thei ding in anmah ra uktu, nehtu, asilole ramhtu (invader) minung pawl ih nunphung le ttong pianhmang (linguistic trait) an lakluhnak ruangah a thleng tam zet mi a si. Hivek ruangah harsatnak a tongtu ttong pawl lak ih tahtthimnak tthenkhat cu Great Britain ram ih Welsh ttong, le Japan ram ih Ainu ttong an si. Himi hi ttong in harsat a tonnak san le vang pawl lak ih a thleng tambik mi a si fawn. Himi khal hi kan Chin miphun khal in bese zet ih kan tuar mi nat a si ve.

           

Himi pali pawl hi a hranpa tete’n an thleng lo tla a si thei. A cancan ahcun ttum khat thilthu ah pakhat hnak ih tam an thleng tlang thei. Cun, nunphunglam hliahkhuhawknak (cultural hegemony) hi donehnak (conquest) le delhkilhnak tivek in si lo’n pehtlaihawknak a tam vivo ruangih a pitling sawn le thazang cak sawn mi nunphung le ttong in a hliahkhuh vivo ruang khal ah a thleng thei fawn.

Engh-tthawnawknak le harsattonternak

(Marginalization and endangerment)

           

Rel zo bang in leitlun ih ttong tampi an siatralnak san tambik cu nunphunglam, ramkhellam, le sumsiamlam engh-tthawnawknak ruangah a si. Mithiampawl in engh-tthawnawknak hi phun tampi in an tthen.

           

Pakhat cu sumsiamlam hliahkhuhnak (economic dominance) a si. Miphun tumsawn asilole hmangtu a nei tam mi ttong umnak lawng ih sumsiamlam tthansohnak um in, ttong tenau a hmangtupawl umnak hmun ih sumsiamlam harsatnak a thlen tikah ttong hlohralnak ding lamzin a tam. Retheihnak ruangah ttong tenau a hmangtu minungpawl cu khawpipawl ah asilole ram dang ah a tthawnter. Curuangah cui’ ttong a hmangtupawl kha hmun dangdang ah an ttekdarh thluh. Himi hi Chin miphun in tulaifang ih kan ton rero mi a si ti cu kan thei ttheh.

           

A dang pakhat cu nunphunglam hliahkhuhnak (cultural dominance) a si. Calai le sangsin fimthiamnak (higher education) cu hmangtu tamsawn ttong lawng ih ngah theih a sinak hmun ah nunphunglam hliahkhuhawknak hi a thleng ttheu. Myanmar ram ih, Kawl a si lo mi, ramhrin miphun hmuahhmuah in himi hi kan tuar rero lai.

           

A dang pakhat leh cu ramkhellam hliahkhuhnak (political dominance) a si. Himi hi fimthiamnak le ramkhellam cangvaihnak ah hmangtu tamsawn ttong lawng hman a si tikah a thleng ttheu. Himi khal hi Myanmar ram ih Kawl a si lo mi ramhrin miphun hmuahhmuah in sepi ruah tuar ih kan tuar rero mi a si.

           

Sanphung (history) sung ih kan zoh tikah kuthnuairam a rak si dah mi ram pawl (colonies) ah, le ttong dangdang a hmangtupawl zomkhawmawknak an neih tikah ttong tthenkhat cu a dang pawl hnak in an cungcuang sawn (superior) ti’n ruat an si ttheu. A tlangpithu cun ttong pakhat in cui’ ram sung ih ttong dang hmuahhmuah a hliahkhuh ttheu. Harsat a tong mi ttong a neitu minungpawl cun an ttong cu retheihnak, siarnganthiamlonak (illiteracy) le zatlang hmai ih mualphonak (social stigma) thlentertu ah an ruat duh zet ih, khatlam ah, zatlanglam le sumsiamlam tthansohnak le sanmannak thlentertu a si mi hliahkhuhtu ttong (dominant language) sawn hman mai duhnak an neih phah ttheu (10).

A Rahsuahpawl (Effects)

           

Ttong in harsatnak a ton mi hin a hmangtu minung le cui’ ttong lala parah rahsuah a nei. Zatlanghlawm pakhat in an ttong an hloh tikah, a tlangpithu in, an ttong thawn a sihcih aw mi nunphunglam cindanpawl (cultural traditons) an hloh phah ttheu. A hleice in hla, puzungthu (myth), le biazai (poetry) tivekpawl hi ttong dang ah ol-aitei’ lehlin le ttthawn theih an si lo ruangah cumi sung ih a um mi nunphunglam cindanpawl an hlo. Cumi in an pianphung (identity) parih an khawruahdan a ttumsukter thei ih, zatlanghlawm pumkhatnak a tlase vivo. A rei vivo cun an ngaithupit mi manmualpawl (values) le cindanpawl cu a thar in thleng a rung si ttheu.

           

Hivek hi a cancan ahcun anomie tiah an sim ttheu. Anomie timi cu zatlanphung (sociology) ttongfang a si ih tahfungpawl (standards) le manmualpawl tlaksiatnak (breakdown) ruangah asilole hmuitinmi (purpose) lole zohtthim tlak thilpawl (ideals) neih lo ruangah senpihlawm (society) asilole mibulpak nun ih hngelhngehlonak (instability) a thleng mi dinhmun hmuhsaknak ih hman mi ttongfang a si. Anomy ti khal in an hmang (11). Himi hi nunphung kilkhawi theitu calai ttong (literary language), le calai kutsuak ttha a nei lo mi mipum mal phunhnam lak ah a thleng tam zet.

           

Ram tthenkhat ahcun hrinphun hlawm (ethnic group) hi an hman mi ttong ih zir in an tthen ruangah ttong a hloh tikah cui’ hrinphun hlawm in an ngah ding mi ramkhellam hamtthatnak hmuahhmuah khal a hloh cih thei tinak a si.

           

Cun, ttong in harsat a ton tikah cui’ ttong ih a um mi ttongkalhmanglam (grammatical) hmelhmang khal an danglam vivo. A hleice in a hliahkhuhtu ttong ih hmel a keng vivo ttheu (12).

Ttong in Tuahmawh A Tuar Hi A Poi Maw?

           

A tlangpithu cun ttong in tuahmawh a tuar hi ttongphungthiam pawl le a hmangtu mipi in poi an ti cio. Asinan ttongphungthiam tthenkhat, tthimnak ah mual liam zo awsuahphung mithiam (phonetician) Peter Ladefoged cun ttong thihnak (language death) hi minung nunphung tthansohnak lamtluan ih a thleng ding mi thil pangai pakhat a si, ttong cu a hmangtu zatlanghlawm in bulpak puhmawh mi san le vang pakhatkhat sirhsan ih an hman nawn lo ruangah a thi a si men, tiah a sim. Ladefoged cun ttongphungthiam pawl ih ttuanvo cu ttong kha dengfel zet ih (scientifically) hminsin-ngankhum ding kha a si ih, ttong a hloh le hloh lo thu ih hrolh aw ve ding an si lo tiah a sim (13).

           

Asinan leitlun ah nunphung le ttong famkim cia a um lo ruangah mitin in mai’ nunphung le ttong cu tthansohter in, mai’ nunphung le ttong cio thawi’ san man leitlun sersuah cu an duh cio. Curuangah, hrilsiannak zalen um sehla cun, mai’ ttong a hloh ding duhtu cu an mal zet ding, asilole, an um lo ding. Ttong a hloh lo ding ruahsan in ttong kilhimnak pawlkom tam zet a ding ih, cozah tampi cun cozah ttuanvo pakhat ah ruat in an ttuan rero fawn.

Ttong Kilhimnak

           

Ttongphungthiam pawl, tuahmawhmi ttong hmangtu zatlanghlawm sungih minung pawl, cozah pawl, cozah-si-lo pawlpi pawl (non-governmental organizations), le UNESCO le European Ttangrual (European Union) tivek ramtamhuap (international) pawlpi pawl cun tuahmawhmi ttong pawl humhim ding le hngelhngetter ding in an ttuan rero. Ttong pakhat cu tuahmawh a si ti ih ruah a si tikah hngelhngehter ding asilole runsuahnak ding in karbak pathum a um. A hmaisabik cu ttong hminsin ngankhumnak (language documentation) a si ih, a pahnihnak cu ttong nuntersalnak (language revitalization) si in, a pathumnak cu ttong kilkhawinak (language maintenance) a si.

           

Ttong hminsin ngankhumnak cu ca, awkhumnak (audio) le zohtheih (visual) kalhmang thawn ttongkalhmang (grammar), ttongfangpawl (vocabulary), le simsin calai (thuanthu, hla, sakhawlam cahlawm pawl) tivek hminsin ngankhumnak tuah a si. Cui ttong hrangah phosuah ttongkalhmang (descriptive grammar) tuah, cui’ ttong ih um mi ca pawl le dictionary pawl tuah le khonkhawm a ttul ih, cuvek pawl himtei’ kilkhawinak ding hmun khal a um a ttul. Cumi lawngah lehhnu thlahsinsan minung pawl in an run zingzoi thei ding.

           

Ttong nuntersalnak timi cu tuahmawhmi ttong kha a hmangtu tam sinsin ding in ramkhellam kalhmang in siseh, zatlanghlawm kaihhruaiawknak in siseh, fimzirnak bungrua hmang in siseh, tawlrelnak a si. Leitlun ah ttong nuntersalnak hlawhtling langsarbik cu Hebru ttong nuntersalnak an tuah mi a si. Hebru ttong hi Israel ram in zalennak ngah a tum tir ahkhan suahkeh ttong zaran ih hmangtu an um nawn lo zo. Sakhuanaklam lawng ih hman mi ttong a si. Asinan phunhnamveinak (nationalism) thawi’ sihkop ih an tharthawh ciamco ruangah a nung thar sal ih, zungpom ttong (official language) ah a hung cang. Tuini ah tuahmawhmi ttong tam zet ih ttongfang pawl le cabu pawl cu internet cahmai parah ngah theih an si thlang (14).

           

Ttong kilkhawinak timi cu cui’ ttong a hmangtu mipum ttumsukter theitu ding a lenglam minung pawl lak ihsi humhim aw thei ding in cui’ ttong a hmangtu pawl bomnak pek kha a si (15).

References

1. Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia (2011). “Introduction”. In Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia. Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages. Cambridge University Press.

2. “Statistical Summaries”. Ethnologue Web Version. SIL International. 2009. Retrieved 26 April 2009.

3. Krauss, Michael E. (2007). “Keynote - Mass Language Extinction and Documentation: The Race Against Time”. In Miyaoka, Osahito; Sakiyama, Osamu; Krauss, Michael E. The Vanishing Languages of the Pacific Rim (illustrated ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–24.

4. Ibid.

5.  “UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger”. UNESCO.org. 2009. Retrieved 27 April 2009.

6. “Languages on Papua Vanish Without a Whisper”. Dawn.com. July 21, 2011.

7. “Language Revitalization”. Wikipedia, free encyclopedia.

8.  “Nilo-Saharan languages.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica 2009 Student and Home Edition.  Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.

9. Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia (2011). “Introduction”. In Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia. Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages. Cambridge University Press.

10. Ibid.

11. “anomie.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica 2009 Student and Home Edition.  Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009.

12. UNESCO Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages (2003). “Language Vitality and Endangerment” (pdf). Retrieved 27 April 2009.

13. Ladefoged, Peter 1992. Another view of endangered languages. Language 68(4): 809–11.

14. “Reviews of Language Courses”. Lang1234. Retrieved 11 Sept 2012.

15. Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia (2011). “Introduction”. In Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia. Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages. Cambridge University Press.